Administrative reforms History of Bahrain (1783–1971)

the administrative reforms took place between 1919 , 1927. nature of reforms, referred reforms of twenties administrative, not political did not involve issue of government legitimacy or form of public representation. instead more focused on reshuffling of public offices , economic resources. these reforms not result of british intervention only, other factors such bahrain social order , tribal regime had considerable weight. main result of these reforms establishment of modern bureaucracy.

starting 1919, h. r. p. dickson, british political agent began reforming schools, courts, municipalities , other institutions of country. in 1919, joint court headed dickson , abdulla bin isa, son of ruler established deal cases of foreigners against bahrainis. next year, fidawis abolished after municipal council formed. council members appointed, half of them ruler , half british, , tasked civil responsibilities. in 1923, salifa court abolished , replaced customary council. council formed in 1920 members appointed same way in municipal council, given rule on trade, including pearl industry. during same year shia jurist appointed in government. these reforms rejected al khalifa , allies, sent many petition mumbai government against dickson s reforms.

challenges reforms

photograph of hamad bin isa al khalifa (1872–1942), date unknown.

dickson replaced major c. k. daly (1920–26), unlike predecessor used tough , uncompromising measures introduce reforms. started undermining influence of abdulla bin isa, opposed reforms , strengthening elder brother , heir apparent, hamad bin isa. 1921, country divided 2 camps, first supporting reforms composed of hamad bin isa, british political agent , shia (who @ time composed half of population), , second opposing reforms composed of ruler, son abdulla , tribesmen. series of pro , anti reform petition submitted 2 factions different british officials including foreign office.

the shia, desperate rid of tribal regime, demanded in 1 of many petitions daly bahrain placed under formal british protection. latter, supported demands, wrote letter higher official in mentioned mismanagement , corruption of al khalifa atrocities , oppressions had committed, abdulla bin isa. other faction, tribal chiefs , pearl merchants, rejected reforms on basis equity , standardization of law remove advantages such exemption taxes , sovereignty on estates. bombay government cautious , moved slowly; 1922 ended without implementing reform plans. encouraged al khalifa , al dawasir, perceived biggest losers, use violence. latter called wahhabis controlled al-hasa , wanted annex bahrain newly formed theocratic state.

full scale violence erupted in 1923 after smaller incidents earlier year. took socio-ethnic pattern urban najdi sunnis fought against urban persian shias , tribal sunnis against shia villagers. al dawasir of budaiya , members of al khalifa attacked shia villages of barbar, ali , sitra, , riots erupted in manama between najdis , persians. these resulted in twelve people killed, dozens wounded , women raped destruction of properties. violence settled after british fleet arrived in bahrain , after ruler isa bin ali forced abdicate in favor of son, hamad. petitions , political crisis, continued reign of hamad.

hamad began reign (1923–42) setting criminal court try involved in violence; al dawasir , sons of khalid bin ali al khalifa. al dawasir intimidated , killed shia witnesses , killed 2 shia notables encouraged others witness against them. time, al dawasir taken courts forced pay fines. marked first time in bahrain s history subjected public law. after, 2 thirds of al dawasir left dammam , rest remained, follow them shortly after ruler had given them deadline either return or leave altogether. although wahhabi emir of najd promised exempt al dawasir taxes, later demanded them. coupled loss of half of fleet during emigration, confiscation of properties in budaiya , blockage diving in bahrain pearl banks, resulted in weakening them economically , politically, , led them in 1926 plead ruler of bahrain allow them back.

in 1927, ruler allowed them return, regular subjects, small part of them accepted , returned. other part of opposition faction composed of sons of khalid al khalifa, ruler s cousins attacked sitra. ruler put in dilemma between tribal alignment , public law, , exiled cousins, paid expenses. cousins, held deep grudge against residents of sitra island witnessed against them, , in 1924 attacked island before exile, killing several shia men, women , children. sons of khalid al khalifa sentenced death following major shia protests , lengthy trial, luckily ruler, managed escape before sentence carried out.

implementation of reforms

a failed assassination attempted on ruler 1 of cousins in 1926, aside that, rest of reign without major disturbances , proceeded implement administration reforms. in 1926, new adviser position created deal internal affairs of bahrain. creation , until 1957, occupied charles belgrave, became known locally adviser .

pearl industry

the reforms in pearl industry, took place between 1921 , 1923 testing point whole reform process met strongest resistance tribes. once tribal resistance broken, way open other reforms take place. these reforms focused on protecting divers interests , limiting merchants monopoly on pearl industry. included separating commercial activities pearl diving , requiring pilots write down account every diver in book held diver. in 1930s, pearl industry lost momentum due number of factors including production of cultured pearls , discovery of oil.

private properties , public rights

starting twenties, decade-long intensive cadastral survey carried out register private properties indian team. occupied land ten years or more, or had ruler-issued gift declarations given ownership of land. difficulties aroused within ruling family on distribution of former estates, deal in 1932 reached included abolishing forced labor , tax collection, , establishment of family court deal intra-al khalifa disputes. in total, ruling family owned 23% of palm gardens making them second largest landowning category after private landholders.

land renting put under government supervision, parties having write out , submit authorities terms , conditions of contracts. taxes , forced labor abolished, there no need wazirs , kikhdas , these positions abolished well. lighter state taxation system introduced, contributed small percent of state budget, while biggest part through customs, on pearl industry. ruling family received of budget; in 1930 half of allocated them either allowances or salaries.

judicial system

having no standardized penal code, joint court established in 1919 used indian, british or sudanese code appropriate local customs. before establishment of bahrain court in 1926, cases taken joint court, sharia courts or customary council. bahrain court served lowest , highest in country until bahrain lower court established in 1927 , appeal court in 1939. headed adviser , member of al khalifa. religious courts integrated central judicial system, subsidiary bahrain court, resulted in weakening power of shia jurists.

policing system

the fidawis replaced municipal police in 1920. in 1922, persians composed of police, in 1924 1 hundred baluchis recruited. baluchis disbanded later after several incidents of incompetence , indiscipline, , replaced retired indian army punjabis served until 1932. policy of recruiting minority cultures continued , due bahrainis avoided joining police constituted 20% of 1960s, rest being foreigners (balushis, yemenis, omanis, etc.). bahrain army founded in 1968 , adopted style of jordanian army. bahrainis, of tribal origin (sunnis) composed majority of recruits, while villagers (shia) composed small percentage within noncombat departments. in general, sunnis of tribal origin dominated authoritative departments such justice, interior, military , emigration, while shia dominated technically based such water, health, finance , electricity.

education

the first school in bahrain american missionary school (now known al raja school), built in nineteenth century. attracted christians , jews initially, , bahrainis started sending children in 1940s , 1950s. first 2 arabic schools in bahrain divided sectarian lines; al-hidaya built in 1919 in muharraq sunnis, while al-ja fariyah built in 1929 in manama shia. al khalifa saw sectarian division threat authority, , in 1932-33 both schools opened public names changed muharraq , manama primary schools respectively. in following years more public schools opened , education department founded.