Historical outline Romanian philosophy

1 historical outline

1.1 beginnings
1.2 17th century
1.3 18th century
1.4 19th century

1.4.1 end of phanariote regime
1.4.2 epoch of restored autochthonous dynasties
1.4.3 epoch of charles (carol i)


1.5 20th century

1.5.1 pre-communist period

1.5.1.1 maiorescians
1.5.1.2 ionescians
1.5.1.3 transylvanians
1.5.1.4 other philosophers


1.5.2 communist period

1.5.2.1 interbellum school
1.5.2.2 school of paltinis
1.5.2.3 epistemological school of bucharest
1.5.2.4 marxism


1.5.3 post-communist period

historical outline
beginnings

prince neagoe basarab , son theodosius

the first broadly philosophical texts attested on romanian territory patristic writings. among corpus of texts, in church slavonic translations, important works of dionysius pseudo-areopagite , dialectics of st. john damascene . excerpts ancient philosophers circulated also. notable indigenous production of epoch teachings of neagoe basarab son, theodosius, written around 1521. book compilation of patristic , biblical sources, many moral , political reflections, ascetic viewpoint. illustrates byzantine theocracy , proposes model of prince-monk.

17th century

dimitrie cantemir, philosopher prince

in middle of 17th century, romanian acquires status of liturgical language alongside greek , slavonic, , begins develop philosophical vocabulary. nicolae milescu (1638–1708) authored first translation of philosophical text romanian (the treatise on dominant reason of pseudo-josephus flavius, translated towards 1688). miron costin (1633–1691) wrote first philosophical poem in romanian, life of world (1672), ethical reflection on earthly happiness. important philosophical production of century divan (1698) of dimitrie cantemir (1673–1723), philosophical treatise supports orthodox ethics rational arguments. treatise translated arabic use of syrian christians, and, later, bulgarian.

some philosophical texts written in latin. gavril ivul (1619–1678), jesuit taught philosophy in university of vienna, wrote logical treatise, propositiones ex universa logica (1654). cantemir authored textbook of logic , treatise of theologo-physics , sacrosanctae scientiae indepingibilis imago (1700) which, besides discussing nature of time, , problem of universals, tries justify biblical cosmogony non-theological arguments drawing on philosophy of jan baptist van helmont. left text on philosophy of history, monarchiarum physica examinatio.

18th century

frontpage of clucer geanetu s work

in 18th century, dominant philosophy in moldavia , walachia neo-aristotelianism of theophilos corydalleus, in fact paduan neo-aristotelianism of zabarella, pomponazzi , cremonini. towards last quarter of century, challenged spread of rationalism (christian wolff) , empiricism (john locke). important figures may considered samuel micu (1745–1806) in transylvania, , iosif moisiodax (1730–1800) in moldavia. first translated intensively wolffian baumeister, implicitly promoting german enlightenment. last contributed decisively @ modernization of philosophical curriculum in princely academies. wrote essay called apology, splendid plea modern european philosophy , against old aristotelian chorydaleian scholasticism. philosophical language of century greek. 1 notable exception provided clucer ioan geanetu (jean zanetti), published in 1787, in greek , french, treatise called réfutation du traité d ocellus de la nature de l univers. here criticised ancient conception regarding eternity of universe, in order reinforce faith of correligionaries.

19th century

the 19th century can divided point of view of history of philosophy 3 periods: of final days of phanariote regime, of restoration of romanian dynasties and, finally, of charles i, came foreign dynasty (hohenzollern).

the end of phanariote regime

in first 2 decades of 19th century prominent philosophers in romanian principalities still greek professors of princely academies. among them, can mention lambros photiades, konstantinos vardalachos, neophyte doucas , benjamin lesvios in bucharest, daniel philippidis, stephanos doungas , dimitrios panayotou govdelas in iaşi. of them alumni of academies principalities, vardalachos, studied photiades, himself ancient student of princely academy bucharest. daniel philippidis studied @ academy in 1780s, under famous philologist neophyte cavsocalyvitis. had studied (with exception of photiades) in major western universities. doungas, example, student of friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling. in physics tried reconcile dogmatic orthodox theology science of nature, following schelling s system.

they not proponents of modern philosophy , natural sciences, of enlightenment ideas. philosophy of french philosophes had major impact on romanian intelligentsia through courses , published books. philosophically, interesting of these authors beniamin lesvios, metaphysics contains, among other valuable things, theory of perception involving discussion of conceptual possibility of colour-inversion. also, worth mentioning philippides first follower of kant in romanian principalities.

the epoch of restored autochthonous dynasties

after 1821, ruling princes once again elected local noblemen i.e. boyars (and validated sultan). greek replaced in academies romanian. era of exalted patriotism , de-hellenization of romanian culture , habits. romanians begin go directly western sources , practice philosophy in own language.

gheorghe lazăr, kantian

as 1818 transylvanian gheorghe lazăr (1779–1821), studied in vienna, began teaching philosophy in romanian in greek-speaking academy. not have of courses left, know follower of kant. debatable whether had first-hand knowledge of kant or not. know didactical purposes decided make romanian translation of of krug s works, subsequently used textbook. krug s handbook of philosophy , philosophical literature translated in first period of 19th century 3 times, august treboniu laurian (1810–1881), timotei cipariu (1805–1887) , simeon barnutiu (1808–1864). transylvanian, , studied in vienna. cipariu teacher of philosophy in romanian college blaj, taught using krug s works in 1828 s. such, philosophical criticism transylvanian specialty.

an important philosopher of period eufrosin poteca (1786–1858). studied in princely academy bucharest vardalachos, doukas , lesvios , @ universities of pisa , paris (1820–1825). eufrosin poteca taught philosophy @ saint sava academy, , prolific translator of philosophical , theological works. own philosophy influenced sensualism of condillac, de tracy , soave, rousseau s political philosophy , strong christian beliefs. maintained there 3 metaphysical first principles, body, soul , spirit, studied 3 distinct sciences: physics (the study of unanimated bodies), psychology (the study of animated things) , ideology (in sense of de tracy, science of ideas). whole universe displays triadic structure, permeated matter, life , logos. identified laws of nature laws of god, , drew conception many moral conclusions, e.g. lack of foundation of celibacy. also, thought foundation of morals, politics , rights golden rule. here argued against slavery, , got him exiled remote monastery, lived until end of life.

another important name of ionică tăutul (1798–1828), moldavian boyar. educated @ home french refugees, acquiring extensive knowledge of political philosophy. indeed, quotes locke, rousseau, montesquieu, voltaire, obscure writers such sabatier de castre. ideas disseminated in correspondence , political pamphlets. left interesting works, construction of politics according human nature or essay against deists , materialists. intention build political theory starting christian anthropology of state of nature. political system justified such procedure aristo-democratic republic . second essay, title inspired mersenne, criticises materialist vision of man-machine (la mettrie) on bases of rather paulinic doctrine of amphibian character of man, character distinguishes him natural world.

an important philosopher alexandru hâjdeu (1811–1872), student of friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling in berlin. man, although proud of moldavian origin, ardent russian patriot, since lived in bessarabia, moldavian territory annexed russia. philosophy concerned destiny of russia, , slavophile , messianistic. argues development of purely russian philosophy, emerging careful study of russian language. according him, such philosophy can national, way russian element can brought universality. way arrive @ such philosophy continue thinking of skovoroda, authentic russian philosopher then. fulfil moment of existence of russian nation.

ioan zalomit (1820–1885) studied philosophy in france , in germany, @ berlin, victor cousin , friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling. obtained here title of doctor of philosophy thesis on kant (1848). in inaugural dissertation, zalomit tries overcome kantian opposition between laws of nature , moral laws. affirms liberty inherent nature, moral laws in fact laws of nature. moral actions result of duty towards nature . way rational theodicy possible.

simeon bărnuţiu (1808–1864) taught philosophy @ blaj college, @ mihaileana academy and, finally, @ university of iaşi. remaining published courses adaptations after krug, beck, rottek , niemeyers. interesting contributions found in philosophy of right. revolutionary, bărnuţiu wanted defend right self-determination of transylvanian romanians. found ideas suitable purpose in philosophy of krug, diffused in transylvania hungarian exponents of philosophy of harmony - samuel köteles, jános hetény , gusztáv szontágh. other influences came savigny. in public law of romanians (1867) bărnuţiu wanted prove romanian law in fact roman law, had been perpetuated throughout history. further more, roman law seemed him respect natural rights of individuals, formulated in enlightenment theories of natural law.

ion heliade rădulescu

at end of period, important , original thinker ion heliade rădulescu (1802–1872). rădulescu studied @ princely academy bucharest, under neophyte doukas, , 1818 migrated romanian classes of gheorghe lazăr. after death of lazar became teacher in academy , had prodigious activity cultural animator. in 1828 published philosophical (in words) romanian grammar, influenced condillac, knew greek teachers. after turmoil of 1848 revolution, heliade rădulescu comes philosophical system, inspired kabala , socialism of proudhon , fourier. there traces of hegel s influence, not directly read (he knew him works of cousin). 2 important works universal critical history , equilibrium between antitheses.

heliade rădulescu proposes, against monisms , dualisms of kind, trinitarian philosophy. affirms philosophical concepts come in dualities, can classified in 2 categories: sympathetic (or parallel) , antipathetic. sympathetic duality formed 2 positive terms, indicate existence: time / space; spirit / matter; right / duty etc. antipathetic duality contains positive , negative term: life / death; movement / inertia; / evil etc. now, each sympathetic duality produces third term, through dualism overcome. here examples: spirit / matter / universe; form / substance / body; progress / conservation / perfectibility; spiritual man / physical man / moral man. beginning here, heliade rădulescu develops kind of cosmology, means of naïve although ingenious geometrical considerations. means offer metaphysical explanation of progress , then, armed metaphysics, fight liberalism. final purpose offer argument in support of political position, called progressive conservatism . reply inconsistent position, answers duality progress / conservation not antipathetic, sympathetic, , progressive conservatism perfectible.

the epoch of charles (carol i)

in 1860 , 1864 prince alexandru ioan cuza founds universities of iaşi , bucharest, , in 1866 karl von hohenzollern-sigmaringen becomes, under name carol i, domnitor of principality of romania, later become kingdom of romania. event marks new wave of westernization, reaction against formerly prevalent cultural model, of enlightenment. @ same time, in 1863, junimnea literary society founded in iaşi.

the last thirty years of 19th century culturally dominated junimea society. romanian philosophy have new beginning and, first time, international echo. philosophers junimea titu maiorescu (1840–1917), vasile conta (1846–1882), alexandru xenopol (1847–1920), mihai eminescu (1850–1889), constantin leonardescu (1844–1907), ioan pop florantin (1843–1926).

titu maiorescu

titu maiorescu studied philosophy in berlin, , obtained 2 doctorates university of giessen, , later university of paris. first philosophical paper einiges philosophische in gemeinfasslicher form (1860), work rather received, written under influence of herbart , feuerbach. in romanian, important contribution logic (1876), influenced herbart, had numerous reprints , served textbook until years 1930. proponent of kant s philosophy, , skeptical respect possibility of original, creative, romanian philosophy.

vasile conta obtained doctorate université libre de bruxelles , functioned professor of law @ university of iaşi. works, published in romanian , french, included la théorie du fatalisme (1877) , la théorie de l’ondulation universelle (1895). conta influenced 3 sources: evolutionist philosophy of herbert spencer, positivism of august compte, , german materialism of büchner, vogt, , moleschott. in first work defends version of determinism, called fatalism , , proposes materialist theory of knowledge (or rather, materialist model of cognition). cognition accounted in terms of material modifications of brain. thought sensorial input transmitted through nervous fibres under form of shakings , or vibrations, provoke apparition of physiological changes in brain, called imprintings . in second cited work, conta proposes materialist metaphysics, affirming wave-like character of universe; according conception, evolution of universe whole, , of each entity in universe has wave-like character. conta wrote books on history of metaphysics, on nature of metaphysics, on first principles constitute world . dissociated positivists of time arguing importance of metaphysics , presence of artistic element in construction of metaphysical systems.

alexandru xenopol, historian , philosopher, had 2 doctorates, 1 of them in philosophy, conferred university of giessen. philosophy emerged constant preoccupations history. in famous work, la théorie de l’histoire, xenopol presents philosophy of science of utmost importance , interest. draws distinction between facts of repetition, , facts of succession. facts of repetition studied natural sciences, , characterised natural laws. facts of succession studied sciences of spirit, notably history, , not subsumed law, form series. xenopol considered rickert 1 of precursors. discussed concept of causality, notion of hypothesis , of verification of hypothesis. views on space , time oppose kantian doctrines, , argues explicitly against german philosopher, in opinion had turned history mere fairy tale.

mihai eminescu, romanian national poet, studied philosophy @ viena , berline. apparently preparing thesis on philosophy of history, never got phd. author of first romanian (partial) translation of critique of pure reason. many of poems , prose contain, in appropriate literary form, quite few philosophical ideas, influenced kant, schopenhauer, , buddhism, never wrote philosophical texts proper. on other hand, political philosophy, exposed in newspaper articles , editorials quite distinctive. eminescu 1 of important , influential romanian conservative political thinkers of last decades of 19th century.

constantin leonardescu studied @ universities of bucharest , paris, , professor of philosophy in university of iaşi. generally, influenced french eclecticism , had thoroughly scientific attitude in philosophy. many of time, leonardescu had great interested in psychology, science tried apply diverse domains of philosophy, such epistemology , aesthetics. long list of published books includes philosophy face progress of positive sciences (1876), metaphysics, religion , science (1884), principles of psychology (1892), inductive morals or science of human behaviour (1885) etc.

ioan pop florantin, doctor of philosophy of university of vienna, taught philosophy in several high-schools in iaşi. authored several books on logic, psychology, , general philosophy, first romania treatise on aesthetics (1874). advanced personal conception called universal consecutionism , kind of materialistic process metaphysics. position summoned true einstein tribunal of logic towards end of life.

prince grigore sturdza (1821–1901) learned man, had philosophical preoccupations. published philosophical works in french, among les lois fondamentales de l univers(1891) important. book s subject-matter chiefly astronomy, or scientific cosmology, serves basis metaphysical speculations.

outside borders of principality, later kingdom, of romania, can notice activity of vasile lucaciu (1852–1922), maramures, northern part of transylvania. of greek-catholic confession, studied @ rome obtained doctorate in theology , philosophy. author of thomist philosophical system, institutions of philosophy, published between 1881 , 1884 in 3 volumes: logic (1881), metaphysics (1882), , moral philosophy (1884).

20th century

during 20th century, history of romanian philosophy can divided in 3 periods: pre-communist period, communist period, , post-communist period.

pre-communist period

two major schools of philosophy have produced, in first half of century, 2 peaks of romanian philosophy: school of maiorescu, , school of nae ionescu. transylvanian philosophers can grouped together, reason of non affiliation 2 other schools, on reason of belonging same spiritual family. apart 3 schools or orientations, there many other authors, cultivating predilection philosophical essay. special mention deserve members of onicescu circle, aptly characterised analytic philosophers.

the maiorescians

the maiorescians constantin rădulescu-motru (1868–1957), p. p. negulescu (1872–1951), dumitru draghicescu (1875–1945), ion petrovici (1882–1972), , mircea florian (1888–1960).

constantin rădulescu-motru, grandson of eufrosin poteca, called philosophical system energetic personalism , influenced otswald s energetism , stern s personalism. expert in experimental psychology (he studied under wundt, getting doctorate dissertation on kant), followed inductivist trend in metaphysics. human personality considered him superior form of energy, final stage of evolution of universe. metaphysics implies political program ethics of labor. purpose of political life must transition anarchic personalism governed romanian society energetic personalism .

p. p. negulescu published philosophy of renaissance still readable , capital study in philosophy of culture, called genesis of forms of culture.

dumitru draghicescu obtained licence in philosophy memoir on influence of kant on auguste compte (1901) @ university of bucharest, continuing studies in paris, did doctorate durkheim. in youth under influence of conta s materialist philosophy. draghicescu had major contributions in social philosophy (he important sociologist). 1 of draghicescu s books, vérité et révelation: vers une nouvelle idée de dieu (2 volumes, 1934), received charles hartshorne, authentically new aspects of concept of god put forth. draghicescu considered man being limit of development divinity, saying of god s attributes can applied such man, considered in potentiality , historical destiny.

ion petrovici wrote on logic , metaphysics. in logic contributed logical theory of notions, regarding relations between intension , extension of term; contradicted law of inverse dependence. in metaphysics perhaps known of contributions lecture idea of nothingness (1933), in nothingness determined transcendent substance , preceding existence , transcending it, manifesting immanently in existent things.

mircea florian, studied in germany neokantian rehmke, elaborated between wars philosophy of pure datum , trying overcome epistemology based on subject-object dichotomy. results published in volume philosophical reconstruction (1943).

the ionescians

the ionescians grouped around teacher and/or friend, nae ionescu (1890–1940). earned phd in germany, study on logistic , i.e., in terminology of epoch, mathematical logic. rejected mathematical logic, thinking reductive in comparison classical logic. thinking on logic in general may regarded form of intuitionism. published newspaper articles, held conservative, reactionary views, , moved toward extreme right. after death, of students , associates (noica, amzăr, eliade, onicescu, vulcănescu) published various lectures on logic, history of logic, epistemology (i.e. theory of knowledge) , on metaphysics , history of metaphysics. approach history of philosophy typological, not chronological. nae ionescu s thought described overall existential philosophy of christian authenticity, called trăirism (from verb trăi , live), autochthonous version of existentialism influenced vitalism , orthodox theology. many late commentators have accused him of plagiarism , neglecting never wrote lectures, not lecture notes; ionescu creatively improvised, , on many occasions 1 can recognise ideas initiated bergson, scheler, heidegger; charisma impressive, , students captivated fact philosophised on spot, in course room, without preconceptions, giving interesting answers issues raised, , provoking spiritual tension, impetus toward thinking on 1 s own. because quite ironic, disposed toward revising thought , never wrote philosophy proper, disciples compared him socrates.

the important of adherents mircea vulcanescu (1904–1952), mircea eliade (1907–1986), emil cioran (1911–1995), constantin noica (1909–1987). others petre Ţuţea influenced personality, , philosophers alexandru dragomir , mihai Şora attended of courses.

mircea vulcanescu had enormous erudition, being considered many chief of generation , did not publish significant philosophical papers. did, however, influence romanian philosophy seminal essay romanian dimension of existence. in work analyses conceptual paradigm serves means of evaluation of diverse philosophical visions romanians. analysing romanian phrases, in calls phenomenological manner, claims unravel inherent worldview. example, analysis of linguistic particularities of negation in romanian language, deduces romanian ethos, traits fatalism or indifference regarding death, easygoing attitude toward life, conception there no alternative nothing irremediable.

mircea eliade, well-known scholar of history of religions, published few essays showing influence of teacher ionescu, through these works brought nothing new in landscape of romanian philosophy. was, however, important person in intellectual landscape of 30 s, possible leader of new generation.

emil cioran, in books written in romanian, proposed philosophy of despair, shows morbid obsession death, expressed in lyrical manner. wrote on nihilist themes of nietzschean , schopeanhaurean provenance, contemporary influences giovanni papini , nicolai berdiaev.

constantin noica debuted essay called mathesis, or simple joys. short book glosses on distinction between life , geometry. after essay noica orientate himself towards history of philosophy, writing on kant, leibniz, descartes, plato, aristotle, hume etc. phd thesis called sketch history of how new may possible, tries answer how spirit not endlessly tautologous , analysing european philosophy plato hume.

the transylvanians

transylvania produced between wars 3 remarkable thinkers: lucian blaga (1895–1961), d. d. rosca (1895–1980), , eugeniu sperantia (1888–1972).

lucian blaga s philosophical system, called ekstatic intellectualism highly original construction, roots in philosophy of kant, psychoanalysis, , patristic philosophy. system projected in 5 monumental trilogies , 3 achieved , fourth partially elaborated. trilogies are, in order: trilogy of knowledge, trilogy of culture, trilogy of values, , cosmological trilogy.

the metaphysical vision of blaga centres around mysterious metaphysical source or principle called great anonymous , creates universe indirectly, mutilating forms of existence emanate him, in order avoid possibility of apparition of great anonymous. results of these acts of mutilation infinitesimal fragments, structured in types, , called divine differentials . extant beings appear aggregation of these differentials. speculative cosmology of blaga includes entelechial interpretation of evolutionist biology.

his theory of knowledge asserts existence of unconscious spirit endowed own set of categories double kantian categories of conscious spirit. these categories of unconscious prevent humans revealing mystery of existence, since knowledge must fit categorical framework. thus, great anonymous maintains isolated centrality of existence , because complete knowledge make man godlike, infuses human activity creative tension. blaga s metaphysical axiology follows conception. categories encompass human powers of expression, , dynamic influence projected values. in other words, can not overcome, idolise. finalist self-deluding repetitively ensures creative destiny of mankind.

all human culture according blaga result of man s trying reveal mysteries of existence, constitutes man s being. since man can not reveal mysteries, because of transcendent censure exerted unconscious categorial scheme, productions bear mark of dynamic framework. totality of these categories @ point called stylistic matrix , , have structure of cosmoid , of small universe, i.e. self-sufficient order. thus, each culture characterised style, in different categories activate , wear off successively, until complete exhaustion of stylistic matrix. @ moment, culture generated attempts of revelation within respective stylistic matrix dies. vision inspired by, detached morphological theory of culture, exposed frobenius or spengler. blaga discusses extensively, many illustrations why these theories missed point.

d. d. rosca, later coordinator , translator of series of complete works of hegel romanian, arrived @ philosophical synthesis presented in book tragic existence. personal blend of existentialism, roots in kierkegaard, influenced hegel. phd thesis @ sorbonne, influence of hegel on taine, translation in french of life of jesus made him known name in french-speaking world.

eugeniu sperantia prolific author. began list of publications phd thesis, pragmatic apriorism, rethinking of kant s transcendental analytic pragmatist stand-point. wrote subsequently on various subjects, biology hegelian perspective, gaining reputation in field of philosophy of right. pioneer in field of erotetic logic (the logic of interrogatives), called problematology . interesting , neglected work system of metaphysics: implicit in postulates of possible knowledge. have here theoretical innovation in metaphysics: sperantia replaces categorial theories of classical metaphysics analysis of general questions, analysis rendered possible problematology. thus, framework-theory of metaphysics becomes logic of interrogatives. recently, conception of metaphysics compared of collingwood.

other philosophers

from multitude of philosophical authors unaffiliated previous 3 currents can mention here (almost randomly) vasile bancilă (1897–1979), ionel gherea, anton dumitriu (1905–1992) , stéphane lupasco (1900–1988).

vasile bancilă wrote 2 important commentaries on blaga , radulescu-motru, , gave valuable reply blaga s mioritic space, called plai , opposing bancilă called space of bărăgan. blaga s book maintained unconscious category of space operates in romanian stylistic matrix space indefinitely wave-like , alternation on ups , downs, sinusoid. name mioritical comes mioriţa , diminutive of sheep, i.e. ewe, famous title of popular ballad considered quite relevant of romanian worldview, written in peculiar alternating style. these highly metaphorical , playful descriptions of specific ethos common significant cultural regions loosely related geographical space. blaga contends 1 may live in plain reflect mioritic plai ethos, , specific ethos may become dominant while remains minor (the term not loaded value in blaga s philosophy) , style may absorb others while being influenced them. bancilă on other hand tried show romanian culture whole not reflect single abysmal category of space, plai structure pointed out blaga, , subsequently tried show existence of bărăgan space (bărăgan name of greatest plain in romania); space not determined alternating relief of hills or mountains, flat plain.

ionel gherea, son of noted marxist sociologist constantin dobrogeanu-gherea, published book called , world: essay in anthropomorphic cosmogony. neglected work contains still interesting discussion of concept of personal identity. author unusual amount of conceptual analysis, although in extremely general lines phenomenologist of husserlian orientation.

anton dumitriu, mathematician initial formation, obtained phd in philosophy became assistant of p. p. negulescu. among first philosophers in romania interested in philosophy of science, subject treated in philosophical bases of science. introduces in romania latest mathematical logic, works new logic , polyvalent logic, presents russell–whitehead axiomatic system of principia mathematica, , c.i. lewis’ system of strict implication. also, researched intensively problem of logical - semantic paradoxes, having conviction solution them available in works of scholastic philosophers.

stéphane lupasco, renowned francophone philosopher of science, tried lay basis of new epistemology, consonant newly developed quantum mechanics. advocated logic of included third, conducted him sustain existence of third state, beyond matter , energy.

in 1940s mathematician octav onicescu conducted seminar in philosophy of science @ university of bucharest. among important members of group of scientific philosophy fellow mathematicians grigore moisil , dan barbilian other notorious scientists Şerban Ţiţeica or nicholas georgescu-roegen. engaged in foundational research, using mathematics formal instrument of conceptual analysis. results published in anthology problem of determinism, or in monographs onicescu s principles of scientific knowledge, georgescu-roegen s statistical method or p. sergescu s mathematical thinking.

communist period

within first decade of totalitarianism, romanian philosophical life dominated persecution of important interbellum philosophers. lucretiu patrascanu (1900–1954) author of work, currents , tendencies in romanian philosophy, establish decades status of romanian philosophers. rudimentary means, over-simplifications, appealing marxist-leninist doctrine, patrascanu polemicized major philosophers blaga, radulescu-motru, florian, cioran , exposed them idealists, irrationalists, mystics, bourgeois, imperialists , fascists. among local pseudo-marxists new star emerged quickly, constantin i. gulian (1914-2011), member of romanian academy since 1955 until death. gulian produced @ peak of career several expositions of hegelian philosophy, lacking value. during these first decades, philosophy taught in universities dentists or illiterate workers turned professors virtually overnight: following stalin s death, hardcore communist dogma lost of force.

after 1964, date of great amnesty of political prisoners, philosophical life had chance come existence, partly catalysed professional reinsertion of relatively few surviving philosophers, either imprisoned or marginalized. thus, can distinguish several schools of philosophers: interbellum school, păltiniş school , epistemological school of bucharest. independent figures existed, of course, university professors.

the interbellum school

the name of school may more inappropriate in case before, when spoke of nae ionescu s school or of of titu maiorescu. interbellum school should seen in same manner speak of old school . important philosophers formed in interbellum period, practice again philosophy, , remained creative are: mircea florian, constantin noica, anton dumitriu, mihai Şora (b. 1916), petre Ţuţea (1902–1991), alexandru dragomir (1916–2002).

mircea florian wrote in 1960s in solitude system of philosophy presented in two-volume treatise called recessivity structure of world. inspired analogy genetic biology, florian arrives @ conclusion experience characterised invariant, relation of recessivity holds between 2 concepts. relation neither relation of opposition, contrariety, nor 1 of concordance, subordination. special relation exhibits features of both types of inter-notional relation acknowledged logic. both relation of subordination, , relation of opposition. in pair of concepts united relation, there 1 hierarchically superior, called dominant concept, , which, although hierarchically inferior, ontologically superior, called recessive concept. florian shows every important concept of philosophy belongs pair instantiates recessivity. analysed several dozens of such pairs, writing each term practically micro-monograph.

constantin noica became during time, after release prison, continental metaphysician of european dimensions, arguably 1 of greatest of late 20th century. first book published after detention 27 steps of real in unifies 3 categorial systems, of plato, aristotle, , kant. under hegelian, maybe influenced nicolai hartmann, thought reality, divided in 3 realms, inorganic, organic , spiritual, characterised 3 distinct sets of categories. @ peak of categorial ladder put new category, reflects impact physics had on thought: undulation, or wave, became supreme category.

he later developed theory initiated vulcănescu, , wrote several books brought him overnight celebrity, in literary circles. books creation , beauty in romanian speech, or romanian sentiment of being, masterpieces of etymological speculation , philosophical hermeneutics, have limited universal value, of interest researching romanian spirituality per se. in these books noica arrived @ conclusion romanian language possesses word, preposition, mediates unique access realm of being. preposition întru, expresses processuality of being or calls becoming in-towards (întru) being . idiomatic preposition, of latin provenance (intro) stands more spatial inclusion: indicates going on, movement both toward something, , within i.e. movement of participation.

his ontology (more correctly called metaphysics) edified without idiomatic peculiarities in 2 later works, , consists of becoming in-to being , letters on logic of hermes, incipient since 6 maladies of contemporary spirit. in these works noica shows how monolithic unity of being broken, , being displays 3 instances; being of first instance arrived @ phenomenologically. such, being of things appears functional model, structure individual – determinations – general (i-d-g), things striving realise. model of being found realised that; incomplete, 2 of 3 terms being present. thus, there 6 incomplete, unsaturated formations, called noica ontological precariousness or maladies of being (or of spirit , in 6 maladies...). these maladies, schematically represented i-g, g-i, i-d, d-i, d-g, , g-d, calls rule of real. then, being of second instance element , characterised individual-general, entity not particular, i.e. conditions of identity not make reference single spatio-temporal location. individual-general if distributes without dividing. whiteheadian ingression, distribution without dividing rethinking of platonic participation. favourite exemplification of nature of element noica concept of biological species. elements characterised different categories things, of speculative nature, unity-multiplicity-totality, reality-possibility-necessity. being of third instance, or being qua being, theorised in several pages of incredible density, , in language close theology. noica attempts rethink here problem of 1 , many, in parmenidean – platonic style. formulates criterion being same distribution without dividing .

methodologically, noica can considered, paradoxically, anti-hegelian hegelian. revises hegelian dialectics, accused explicitly noica of being dominated ethos of neutrality . in hegelian logic, noica contends, hegel himself must intervene in order give concepts necessary impetus movement. not have in power move dialectically. noica considers dialectics circular , tetradic. scheme thesis – antithesis – synthesis replaced him rival scheme theme – anti-theme – thesis – theme (refound). spirit, noica says, begins not thesis, thematic horizon in moves, , digs repeatedly, going more , more toward intimacy of horizon. several of noica s peculiar paradoxical concepts, allow him articulate views on dialectics, difficult comprehend, , require sympathy reader: non-limiting limitation , opening closure etc.

noica s philosophy concerned problem of reason , problem of individual. redefines reason conscience of becoming in-to being . philosopher wanted save individual tyranny of general , give individual ontological dignity . disturbed image of individual simple instance of general, simple particular case of general rule. intended maintain reality of general natures, not wanting reduce them mere collections or classes of individuals. thus, rejected both platonic realism, , nominalism of kinds. instead of choosing between nominalism , realism, proposes third version, insists on solidarity existent between individual , general, linked determinations. triangle i-d-g forms irreducible unity, reminiscent of peirce s triad.

constantin noica formed around him unofficial school of philosophy, based @ păltiniş, mountain location spent last living years. păltiniş became place of pilgrimage young romanian intellectuals, went there in search of spiritual mentor. noica became kind of national institution influence unequalled other intellectual figure before or after him. imposed disciples intensive study of greek , german, , asked them approach cultures , not authors , not isolated books. had effervescent activity of translation, initiating in collaboration petru creţia integral edition of plato in romanian. translated neo-platonic aristotelian commentators, dexippus, ammonius, porphyry , others. contributed translation of kant s critique of judgement, , translated chorydaleus, introduction logic , commentary metaphysics. himself wrote commentaries , interpretations of plato, aristotle, , hegel, , encouraged introduction of heidegger s writings. far brilliant philosopher of post-war romania.

anton dumitriu continued after 1964 initial preoccupations, publishing in philosophy of mathematics , in theory , history of logic. monumental history of logic, although landmark of romanian philosophy , of discipline, suffered notable shortcomings , had rather bad reception in west. dumitriu included on topics of history, chapters on transcendental , dialectical logic, , little on others, not treating many branches of recent logic, or treating them sketchily , insufficiently, in case of modal logic. also, misinformed on issues concerning scholastic philosophy. however, there many parts of work still valuable today.

anton dumitriu wrote series of essays, more literary in style, made him appreciated romanian intellectual milieu, centered on literature. book philosophia mirabilis essay on esoteric dimension of greek philosophy, eleatic cultures , heracleitean cultures, comparative essay in philosophy of culture, , aletheia, study of greek meaning of truth , of philosophy, criticises heidegger s position in introduction metaphysics.

mihai Şora student of nae ionescu , mircea eliade, younger members of so-called ’27 generation. obtained in 1938 bourse @ sorbonne, went preparing thesis on pascal. during wartime wrote book called on interior dialogue, published in 1947 @ gallimard, , received jacques maritain , Étienne gilson. in work sora explores problem of human authenticity, in existential tone, influenced scholastic philosophy (notably of thomas aquinas , nicolaus cusanus) , marxism (he member of french communist party , member of résistance).

in 1948 returned romania, , couldn t leave country anymore. did not publish until end of 70s, when began cycle of 4 books, containing philosophical system, achieved in 2005. during communist regime wrote , published 3 of 4 books composing cycle: salt of earth, be, do, have , & & & or generalised dialogue. last book called instant , time. system consists of ontology, poetics, ethics , political philosophy, deriving original ontological model . influences comes péguy, pascal, scholastics , husserl. sora considered himself ever since first book cartesian of utmost consequence , i.e. phenomenologist.

his concept of intentionality, crucial comprehension of philosophy, neither of brentano, nor of husserl, original 1 deep roots in scholastic philosophy. in-tentio, derived in aliud tendere penetrating act of spirit, goes beyond things origin, unum 3 transcendentals: bonum, verum , pulchrum. thus, there 3 forms of intentionality, moral, theoretical , esthetical, characterising 3 types of human attitudes toward world. unum not viewed actus purus, rather universal potentiality of being . such, i.e. placed, in Şora s metaphorical model, @ centre of sphere of null radius, has, thus, same topos periphery. surface of sphere represents pure exteriority, composed of terminal actualities . radius geometrical locus of interiority, find intermediary potentialities .

mihai Şora considered mentor of school , more discrete , heterogeneous school of noica, , there increasing interest in work, young philosophers grouped around studia phaenomonelogica philosophical review.

petre Ţuţea had phd in administrative law. before , during second world war worked director in ministry of national economy, , known , appreciated members of 27 generation 1 of own, though little older. gained reputation of rhetorical genius, when spoke stood , listened. considered him leader of generation . having youthful marxist convictions, developed right-wing nationalist sympathies, later lead arrest , conviction. in prison rediscovered christianity, , after release considered himself christian philosopher. although due political antecedents , uncompromising content of philosophical ideas , religious faith Ţuţea not publish much, wrote considerable amount, including late work projected in 5 volumes, problems, systems, styles, sciences , dogmas . completed first two, , small part of styles , dogmas – of first 2 volumes published posthumously. philosophy of nuances important essay, veritable manifesto new philosophy, dating 1969. Ţuţea influenced whole plethora of intellectual personalities, plato, greek skepticism, leibniz, nietzsche, bergson, simmel , fictionalism of hans vaihinger. significant romanian philosophical influences lucian blaga , nae ionescu. theologically, under sway of st. paul, augustine , later thomas aquinas, while knew , admired major contemporary romanian theologian, fr. dumitru stăniloae, whom met in prison. Ţuţea appreciated various thinkers werner sombart, , refers scientists heisenberg , poincaré.

initially Ţuţea rejected categories of western idealism, replacing kantian conceptual framework spectrum of empirical-phenomenological nuances. later philosophy, declares, effort of theologal (not theological) thinking. argues truth unique, human reason cannot find itself, although can receptacle of truth. thus, in order know truth, man needs inspiration , revelation. man never autonomous, , intellectual efforts science or philosophy means of producing fictions, @ level of material , cultural comfort. Ţuţea believed science , philosophy don’t have consoling function, being irrelevant respect dramatic issues, death. thus, religion (specifically, christianity) possesses truth , bears relevance destiny of humankind. without it, says, man rational animal comes , doesn t go anywhere . anthropologically, Ţuţea analyzed calls christian man ; anthropological model pursued of saint.

Ţuţea undoubtedly unusual, socratic figure, in sense of major, exemplary personality, , writing style quite peculiar. various writings hardly classifiable, , though never finished whatever started, after release prison Ţuţea elaborated @ least 3 original literary-philosophical styles: philosophy of nuances, theatre seminar , religious-theologal reflections. 1 of Ţuţea s singular features, so-called substantivization of predicates, related manner of writing sentences without verbs, many resonant repetitions calls leit-motifs , constant nuancing of terms, coupled rejection of systems , absence of philosophical speculation stuns critics, have no idea make of unusual manner of thinking , writing, in cultural environment dominated belletristic writing or academic exegesis. romanian public came know personality after 1989, when several interviews of Ţuţea, 89 years old broadcast on tv , gained admiration of broad audience.

the subsequent publication of collection of aphorisms gathered interviews became best seller, while major writings still not known or appreciated, although Ţuţea surrounded friends typed , multiplied manuscripts. neighbours called him professor , because seemed lecture, ironically pointed out, legendary tenured chair under blue sky, in campus of cişmigiu - central park in bucharest, close studio apartment. several of close friends , companions such mircea eliade, emil cioran, petre pandrea, later marcel petrişor, aurel-dragoş munteanu , younger generation radu preda , alexandru popescu accomplished philosophers, writers , scholars.

alexandru dragomir late discovery of romanian public, actively promoted humanitas publishing house (led gabriel liiceanu), edited of notebooks. dragomir, former doctoral student of heidegger, reticent man wrote secretly , never intended publish anything. in old days began giving private seminaries, carried on until death; narrow group of intellectuals attended. after died several loosely thematic notebooks found, proving dragomir phenomenologist of great class. among these manuscripts, publication not finished, there several reflections on time, form consistent part of thought. influence of dragomir on romanian philosophy still developing. studia phaenomenologica dedicated 1 of issues him.

the school of paltinis

constantin noica in continuous search gifted young philosophers, discovered , trained. among these (at time) young men, there several have manifested in philosophical , literary, or rather literary-philosophical romanian environment. such gabriel liiceanu (b. 1942), andrei pleşu (b. 1948), sorin vieru (b. 1933), andrei cornea (b. 1952), vasile dem. zamfirescu, alexandru surdu (b. 1938) , corneliu mircea.

gabriel liiceanu grew prominence after published păltiniş diary, described paideic adventure under noica s guidance. book transformed noica sort of philosophical star. diary perhaps influent romanian philosophical publication of late 1980s, initiating fascination of younger generations păltiniş, , encouraging study ancient greek, latin , german prerequisites serious study of philosophy. liiceanu s own philosophical project centered around idea of limit , , therefore called hermeneutic inquiry nature , history of concept peratology (from greek peras = limit). program initiated tragic. phenomenology of limit , overcoming, phd thesis, lays accent on nietzsche, , accomplished on limit, final , more general expression of peratology. on limit touches on various topics such of liberty, destiny, responsibility, encounter other, in framework heideggerian. liiceanu accomplished translation of heidegger romanian.

andrei pleşu first known art historian, subtle philosopher. avows being more interested in light side of philosophy, had respectful antipathy towards aristotle, , considered had absolutely no use hegel. oriented himself toward ethics , philosophy of religion. focal idea of interval , in-between of existence, space of itinerancy. plesu wrote 1 of few romanian treatises of ethics, minima moralia, subtitled ethics of interval . begins affirming man in condition of itinerancy has moral competence, needing make choices @ every step of way. thus, true ethics not major 1 of great problems , puzzles, minor ethics of quotidian life , of ordinary situations. further on, explored theme of interval in on angels, book of angelology, arising @ intersection between metaphysics , philosophy of religion. in book, entities called angels analysed cases of beings of interval . entire exercise has secondary value of ontology of interval.

sorin vieru 1 of few păltiniş logicians. established reputation researches on classical syllogistic, axiomatised. specialist in frege, whom translated abundantly. interests covered greek philosophy, plato s political philosophy. translated several of plato s difficult dialogues. finally, published essay on risk of thinking, in collaboration mathematician uther morgenstern, alias terente robert.

andrei cornea specialist in ancient greek philosophy , political thinker. during communist regime published little in domain of philosophy, translated plato s republic. after 1989 published intensively. thus, can cite interpretation plato plato. philosophy , censorship, interesting rehabilitation of points of view sophistically rejected plato s socrates when socrates not right, or proposing of replacing concept of utopia of ek-topia, opposed en-topia, in school of athens school of paltinis. perhaps important contribution valuable critique of contemporary relativism khazar tournament. translated aristotle s metaphysics , great part of plotinus s enneads.

vasile dem. zamfirescu s main interests in psychoanalysis. therefore, philosophy bears marks of these interests. wrote book on logic of heart , logic of mind, liked noica, , after 1989 published philosophy of unconscious (2 volumes), exploring philosophical potential of psychoanalytical idea of unconscious.

alexandru surdu 1 of earliest collaborators on noica, in great measure independent. specialised in logic, publishing books on intuitionism , intuitionist logic. studied aristotelian logic, arriving theory of pre-judicative forms, rethinking of categories means of formal logic. after 1989 published on romanian philosophy , speculative philosophy. notable volumes pentamorphosis of art , speculative philosophy. alexandru surdu is, noica, anti-hegelian hegelian. thus, criticises hegel absolutisation of triadic dialectics, criticises noica absolutising tetradic dialectics, while proposing version of pentadic dialectics. maintains, though, diverse experiential realms investigated diverse dialectics, binary, triadic, tetradic or pentadic. philosophy continues long-time discredited epistemology of faculties, complicates speaking of 5 faculties of thinking. thus, have: intellect, rational intellect, reason, speculative reason, , speculation. categories of systematic philosophy, determined surdu, five: transcendence/subsistence, being, existence, real existence, , reality. surdu 1 of translators of wittgenstein s tractatus romanian , translated kant.

corneliu mircea psychiatrist , philosopher, encouraged noica, not 1 of disciples. still, interests, themes, , style, places him in păltiniş circle, paid visits regularly. published quite consistently. during communism gave, among other publications, book of being, being , consciousness, discourse on being, , after 1989 published (among other things) originary, being , ek-stasis, making. treatise on being. influenced hegel , sartre, philosophy inquiry meaning of being, commencing nothingness, in attempt of rethinking both hegel s logic , sartre s being , nothingness. cultivates deliberate literary expression, maintaining philosophical discourse must have 2 sides, 1 conceptually objective, other subjective, aesthetic, persuasive. lately, corneliu mircea seems close form of mystical philosophy.

the epistemological school of bucharest

following examples of anton dumitriu, grigore moisil or octav onicescu, several teachers @ university of bucharest oriented toward epistemology , philosophy of science, due technical nature lacked ideological control , interference. after demise of communism, continued preoccupations, wrote on many other subjects. protagonists of school mircea flonta (b. 1932), ilie parvu (b. 1941), vasile tonoiu (b. 1941), , marin turlea (b. 1940).

mircea flonta wrote valuable monograph on theme of analytic/synthetic distinction in contemporary philosophy, , study on philosophical presuppositions of exact sciences. can considered first analytical philosopher in romania, understanding philosophy critical study of presuppositions. activity continued after 1989 , diversified, approached such themes perception of philosophy in romanian culture. among perennial interests philosophy of kant (he translated kant , wrote book on him) , of wittgenstein (likewise, translated several of books , published book on philosophy).

ilie parvu epistemologist, philosopher of science, metaphysician , interpreter of kant. introduction epistemology first book of kind had european level, after period in epistemology marxist–leninist gnoseology . still best autochthon introduction available. studies in philosophy of science (the scientific theory, semantics , logic of science) laid accent on contemporary formal instruments of analysis of scientific theories. parvu can considered belonging structuralist current in philosophy of science, following j. sneed, w. stegmüller, c. u. moulines, w. balzer etc.

the structuralist analysis of theories applied ilie parvu in domain of reconstruction of crucial philosophical works, tractatus of wittgenstein or critique of pure reason.

as metaphysician, parvu published two-volume architecture of existence. in first volume analyses structural-generative paradigm in ontology. conceives of ontological theory having abstract-structural core, generates applications not direct instantiation, restrictions , specialisations of core, evolves @ same time application. professor parvu analysed theories capable of furnishing decisive mediations between structural abstraction of nucleus , world of empirical evidence. in second volume analysed contemporary analytic metaphysics, great ontological contemporary constructive programs, of carnap or quine, diverse local metaphysics, of dispositions, powers, ontologies of events, , different theories of individual. presented important discussions concerning metaontology, constructional apparatus, style , techniques in recent metaphysics.

vasile tonoiu interested in continental philosophy of science, translating poincaré, gonseth, bachelard, , writing monographs on gonseth , bachelard. published book on morin s epistemological vision of complexity. chief interest of tonoiu s dialogic philosophy, or philosophy of dialogue. wrote excellent book on mircea eliade, archaic ontologies in actuality.

marin turlea dedicated career philosophy of mathematics. work on philosophy , foundations of mathematics traces distinction between foundational , foundationist research in mathematics, i.e. between mathematicians’ own research on foundations, , philosophical research of foundations of mathematics. in book soundly establishes possibilities, sphere of action , relevance of philosophical study of mathematics. following lines of program indicated in first work, turlea elaborate philosophy of mathematics, more history of philosophical problems connected systems of mathematics, plato , proclus principia mathematica. analyzes metaphysics of mathematical entities in existence , truth in mathematics, , studies wittgenstein s philosophy (or rather anti-philosophy) of mathematics.

the marxism

in romania marxism did not produce notable philosophers. marxist philosopher of importance born in romania, lucien goldman, flourished in france. within mass of ideologists philosophical pretensions, several figures detach though honest philosophers.

this case of athanase joja (1904–1972), logician , interpreter of ancient philosophy, contributions marxist dialectical logic . founded romanian academy s institute of logic, many interbellic philosophers, including noica, reinserted professionally.

another marxist figure henri wald (1920–2002), thinking mixture of french structuralism , marxism, , wrote introduction dialectical logic.

ion ianoşi (b. 1928) marxist philosopher different class, closer literature, being many years secretary of literary critique section of union of writers romania. published trilogy on aesthetical category of sublime, volume on hegel , art , many others, among study of romanian philosophy in relation literature, philosophy , literature.

post-communist period

after revolution 1989, philosophy in romania began rapidly synchronize western contemporary philosophy.

thus, phenomenology represented 2 groups, 1 cluj, virgil ciomoş , ion copoeru main characters, other bucharest, developed consequence of liiceanu s influence. later group includes editors of studia phaenomenologica, cristian ciocan , gabriel cercel, , heideggerians catalin cioaba or bogdan minca. virgil ciomoş published phenomenological interpretations of aristotle , kant, while copoeru husserlian scholar.

post-modernism in romanian philosophy has recent notable exponents such ciprian mihali , bogdan ghiu. although mihali more interested in phenomenological analysis of quotidian, thinking rooted in french post-structuralism. ghiu, through translations on deleuze , various essays spread influence of postmodern , poststructuralist french philosophy in romania, although remains rather subdued, without mature philosophers.

analytic philosophy has developed @ university of bucharest, such names mircea dumitru, adrian-paul iliescu, adrian miroiu, valentin mureşan, mihail-radu solcan. mircea dumitru wrote on philosophical logic, philosophy of language , philosophy of mind. iliescu political philosopher (liberalism , conservatism), has interests in philosophy of language, publishing book on wittgenstein. adrian miroiu published works in fields of modal logic, philosophy of science , political philosophy. more recently, after joining national school of political science , public administration, has moved other fields intimately related political science, such social choice theory, rational choice theory, electoral competition, public policies , educational policies. valentin muresan works in field of ethics, cultivating philosophical commentary. published commentaries of plato, aristotle, , mill. professor solcan contributed development of philosophy of mind in romania, publishing introduction philosophy of mind form perspective of cognitive sciences.

a philosopher intellectually affiliated interbellic tradition, close members of păltiniş school, attended of dragomir s seminars horia-roman patapievici. saluted liiceanu romanian kierkegaard first published essays, later had bear unfair weight of exaggerated remark. ambitious book date on recent man, or lost when won. in essay of cultural , political philosophy patapievici develops conservative critique of late modernity, of vast scope , unequal pertinence, making him notable contemporary romanian liberal-conservative thinker. more thinking seems have adopted libertarian influences.

professor Ștefan aloroaei university of iași specialist in hermeneutics. books made reputation negative reason. historico-symbolic scenarios , how philosophy in eastern europe possible?. published our metaphysics of days, tries hermeneutically investigate metaphysica naturalis implicit in ordinary intercourse of commonsense world.

finally, many university philosophers, exponents of continental style, continue interbellic tradition of jack-of-all-trades philosophers, producing works of history of philosophy , of philosophical hermeneutics.