Theories and methods Ethnomusicology

1 theories , methods

1.1 anthropological , musicological approaches
1.2 analysis

1.2.1 problems of analysis
1.2.2 analytical methodologies


1.3 fieldwork
1.4 theoretical issues , debates

1.4.1 universals
1.4.2 linguistics , semiotics
1.4.3 comparison
1.4.4 insider/outsider epistemology
1.4.5 ethnomusicology , western music
1.4.6 ethics
1.4.7 gender
1.4.8 mass media
1.4.9 copyright
1.4.10 identity
1.4.11 nationalism
1.4.12 globalization
1.4.13 cognition

theories , methods

ethnomusicologists apply theories , methods cultural anthropology, cultural studies , sociology other disciplines in social sciences , humanities. though ethnomusicologists conduct historical studies, majority involved in long-term participant observation. therefore, ethnomusicological work can characterized featuring substantial, intensive ethnographic component.

anthropological , musicological approaches

two approaches ethnomusicological studies common: anthropological , musicological. ethnomusicologists using anthropological approach study music learn people , culture. practice musicological approach study people , cultures learn music. charles seeger differentiated between 2 approaches, describing anthropology of music studying way music “part of culture , social life”, while musical anthropology “studies social life performance,” examining way “music part of construction , interpretation of social , conceptual relationships , processes.”

charles seeger , mantle hood 2 ethnomusicologists adopted musicological approach. hood started 1 of first american university programs dedicated ethnomusicology, stressing students must learn how play music studied. further, prompted college student s personal letter, recommended potential students of ethnomusicology undertake substantial musical training in field, competency described bimusicality. this, explained, measure intended combat ethnocentrism , transcend problematic western analytical conventions. seeger sought transcend comparative practices focusing on music , how impacted in contact it. similar hood, seeger valued performance component of ethnomusicology.

ethnomusicologists following anthropological approach include scholars such steven feld , alan merriam. anthropological ethnomusicologists stress importance of field work , utilizing participant observation. can include variety of distinct fieldwork practices, including personal exposure performance tradition or musical technique, participation in native ensemble, or inclusion in myriad of social customs. similarly, alan merriam defined ethnomusicology “music culture,” , stated 4 goals of ethnomusicology: protect , explain non-western music, save “folk” music before disappears in modern world, study music means of communication further world understanding, , provide avenue wider exploration , reflection interested in primitive studies. approach emphasizes cultural impact of music , how music can utilized further understand humanity.

the 2 approaches ethnomusicology bring unique perspectives field, providing knowledge both effects culture on music , impact music has on culture.

analysis
problems of analysis

the great diversity of musics found across world has necessitated interdisciplinary approach ethnomusicological study. analytical , research methods have changed on time, ethnomusicology has continued solidifying disciplinary identity, , scholars have become increasingly aware of issues involved in cultural study (see theoretical issues , debates). among these issues treatment of western music in relation music “other,” non-western cultures , cultural implications embedded in analytical methodologies. kofi agawu (see 2000s) noted scholarship on african music seems emphasize difference further continually developing new systems of analysis; proposes use of western notation instead highlight similarity , bring african music mainstream western music scholarship.

in seeking analyze such wide scope of musical genres, repertories, , styles, scholars have favored all-encompassing “objective” approach, while others argue “native” or “subjective” methodologies tailored musical subject. in favor of “objective” analytical methods hold perceptual or cognitive universals or laws exist in music, making possible construct analytical framework or set of categories applicable across cultures. proponents of “native” analysis argue analytical approaches inherently incorporate value judgments , that, understand music crucial construct analysis within cultural context. debate exemplified series of articles between mieczyslaw kolinski , marcia herndon in mid-1970s; these authors differed on style, nature, implementation, , advantages of analytical , synthetic models including own. herndon, backing “native categories” , inductive thinking, distinguishes between analysis , synthesis 2 different methods examining music. definition, analysis seeks break down parts of known whole according definite plan, whereas synthesis starts small elements , combines them 1 entity tailoring process musical material. herndon debated on subjectivity , objectivity necessary proper analysis of musical system. kolinski, among scholars critiqued herndon’s push synthetic approach, defended benefits of analysis, arguing in response acknowledgment of musical facts , laws.

analytical methodologies

as result of above debate , ongoing ones it, ethnomusicology has yet establish standard method or methods of analysis. not scholars have not attempted establish universal or “objective” analytical systems. bruno nettl acknowledges lack of singular comparative model ethnomusicological study, describes methods mieczyslaw kolinski, béla bartók, , erich von hornbostel notable attempts provide such model.

perhaps first of these objective systems development of cent definitive unit of pitch phonetician , mathematician alexander j. ellis (1885). ellis used system, divided octave 1200 cents (100 cents in each western semitone), means of analyzing , comparing scale systems of different musics. ellis presented research in on musical scales of various nations, making influential statement “musical scales not acoustic givens humanly organized preferences. ellis s study example of comparative musicological fieldwork (see fieldwork).

alan lomax’s method of cantometrics employed analysis of songs model human behavior in different cultures. posited there correlation between musical traits or approaches , traits of music’s native culture. cantometrics involved qualitative scoring based on several characteristics of song, comparatively seeking commonalities between cultures , geographic regions.

mieczyslaw kolinski measured exact distance between initial , final tones in melodic patterns. kolinski refuted scholarly opposition of european , non-european musics, choosing instead focus on much-neglected similarities between them, saw markers of “basic similarities in psycho-physical constitution of mankind.” kolinski employed method test, , disprove, erich von hornbostel’s hypothesis european music had ascending melodic lines, while non-european music featured descending melodic lines.

adopting more anthropological analytical approach, steven feld conducted descriptive ethnographic studies regarding “sound cultural system.” specifically, studies of kaluli people of papua new guinea use sociomusical methods draw conclusions culture.

fieldwork

bruno nettl, emeritus professor of musicology @ illinois university, defines fieldwork “direct inspection [of music, culture, etc] @ source”, , states “it in importance of fieldwork anthropology , ethnomusicology closest: ‘hallmark’ of both fields, union card”. experience of ethnomusicologist in field his/her data; experience, texts (e.g. tales, myths, proverbs), structures (e.g. social organization), , “impoderabilia of everyday life” contribute ethnomusicologist’s study. importance of fieldwork in field of ethnomusicology has required development of effective methods pursue fieldwork.

in 19th century until mid-20th century, european scholars (folklorists, ethnographers, , ethnomusicologists) motivated preserve disappearing music cultures (from both in , outside of europe), collected transcriptions or audio recordings on wax cylinders. many such recordings stored @ berlin phonogramm-archiv @ berlin school of comparative musicology, founded carl stumpf, student erich m. von hornbostel, , medical doctor otto abraham. stumpf , hornbostel studied , preserved these recordings in berlin archiv, setting foundation contemporary ethnomusicology. but, “armchair analysis” methods of stumpf , horbostel required little participation in fieldwork themselves, instead using fieldwork of other scholars. differentiates stumpf , hornbostel present-day contemporaries, use fieldwork experience main component in research.

ethnomusicology’s transition “armchair analysis” fieldwork reflected ethnomusicologists trying distance field of comparative musicology in period following world war ii. fieldwork emphasized face-to-face interaction gather accurate impression , meaning of music creators of music, in contrast “armchair analysis” disconnected ethnomusicologist individual or group of performers. david mcallester paramount in helping discipline transition “armchair analysis” culturally specific fieldwork. worked navajo, living them study enemy way music more intimately. work involved entirely different conceptualization of music accepted in west. (navajo, other languages, has no direct word music, instead referring in context of function). due mcallester’s success, fieldwork became 1 of important parts of ethnomusicological study.

as technology advanced, researchers graduated depending on wax cylinders , phonograph digital recordings , video cameras, allowing recordings become more accurate representations of music studied. these technological advances have helped ethnomusicologists more mobile in field, have let ethnomusicologists shift “armchair analysis” of stumpf , hornbostel. since video recordings considered cultural texts, ethnomusicologists can conduct fieldwork recording music performances , creating documentaries of people behind music, can accurately studied outside of field. additionally, invention of internet , forms of online communication allow ethnomusicologists develop new methods of fieldwork within virtual community.

heightened awareness of need approach fieldwork in ethical manner arose in 1970s in response similar movement within field of anthropology. mark slobin writes in detail application of ethics fieldwork. several potential ethical problems arise during fieldwork relate rights of music performers. respect rights of performers, fieldwork includes attaining complete permission group or individual performing music, being sensitive rights , obligations related music in context of host society.

another ethical dilemma of ethnomusicological fieldwork inherent ethnocentrism (more commonly, eurocentrism) of ethnomusicology. anthony seeger, emeritus professor of ethnomusicology @ ucla, has done seminal work on notion of ethics within fieldwork, emphasizing need avoid ethnocentric remarks during or after field work process. emblematic of ethical theories 1983 piece describes fundamental complexities of fieldwork through relationship suyá indians of brazil. avoid ethnocentrism in research, seeger not explore how singing has come exist within suyá culture, instead explaining how singing creates culture presently, , how aspects of suyá social life can seen through both musical , performative lens. seeger’s analysis exemplifies inherent complexity of ethical practices in ethnomusicological fieldwork, implicating importance continual development of effective fieldwork in study of ethnomusicology.

theoretical issues , debates
universals

ethnomusicologists started question possibility of universals because searching new approach explain musicology differed guido adler’s. charles seeger, instance, categorized interpretation of musical universals using inclusion-exclusion styled venn-diagrams create 5 types universals, or absolute truths, of music. universals in music hard come universals in language since both potentially have universal grammar or syntax. dane harwood noted looking causality relationships , “deep structure” (as postulated chomsky) relatively fruitless way universals in music. yet search musical universalities has remained topic amongst ethnomusicologists since wilhelm wundt tried prove primitive peoples have monophonic singing , use intervals.” nettl shares belief colleagues trying find universal in music unproductive because there @ least 1 instance proving there no musical universals. example, george list writes, once knew missionary assured me indians whom had ministered on west coast of mexico neither sang nor whistled.” , ethnomusicologist david p. mcallester writes, student of man must know somewhere, doing calls music nobody else give name. 1 exception enough eliminate possibility of real universal.” result of gamesmanship of ethnomusicologists poke holes in universals, focus shifted trying find universal trying find near-universals, or qualities may unite majority of world’s musics.

mcallester believer in near universals, wrote, satisfied if it,” why postulated music has tonal center, has tendency go somewhere, , has ending. mcallester’s main point music transforms everyday humdrum else, bringing heightened experience. likens music having out of body experience, religion, , sex. music’s ability transport people mentally, in opinion near universal musics share.

in response mcallester’s universal perspectives on music, klaus p. wachsmann counters near universal hard come because there many variables when considering subjective topic music , music should not removed culture singular variable. approach, instead of finding universal, create amalgam of relations sound , psyche: (1) physical properties of sounds, (2) physiological response acoustic stimuli, (3) perception of sounds selected human mind programmed previous experiences, , (4) response environmental pressures of moment. in tetradic schema lies exhaustive model of universals in music.” however, wachsmann allow had influenced experience , belief echoed ethnomusicologist shares belief universal lies in specific way music reaches listener. whatever communicates communicated members of in-group only, whoever may be. true of in-groups in our own society in other. classical music communicate every american? rock , roll communicate every parent?”

george list rebuts mcallester’s essay wachsmann , in rebuttal posits that, universal aspect of music seems people make it,” once again reinstating how difficult ethnomusicologists form universal (as uses words “most people). list goes far say, entire panel discussion, , have written here, equally , universally unnecessary. seeger, have been talking , writing ourselves. far ethnomusicologists concerned, universal phenomenon.” viewpoint asserts beneficiaries of finding universal in music not parallel global objectives of unifying music. list wanted compare musics across cultures prove there no universal because between 2 people same culture there variation. this, play western classical music descriptive titles africans , ask them identify title. found no 1 subsume song sinding s rustles of spring possible spring.

dane harwood suggests while there can no cultural universals in music there exist universal modes of cognitively understanding undergo when listen music. harwood highlighted several inherent issues notion of universality in music. first of these structure vs. function in music. notes human behavior structurally predicated, , such, not behavioral patterns (which observe find universals) imply functional activity in music. drew content versus process in musical behavior. in drawing distinction, highlighted scholars studying universals should shift studying what, in terms of content, various cultural groups play process individuals learn music. in summary, view universals in music not matter of specific musical structure or function—but of basic human cognitive , social processes construing , adapting real world.

linguistics , semiotics

it case interests in ethnomusicology stem trends in anthropology, , no different symbols. in 1949, anthropologist leslie white wrote, “the symbol basic unit of human behavior , civilization,” , use of symbols distinguishing characteristic of humans. once symbolism @ core of anthropology, scholars sought examine music “as symbol or system of signs or symbols,” leading establishment of field of musical semiotics. bruno nettl discusses various issues relating ethnomusicology musical semiotics, including wide variety of culturally dependent, listener-derived meanings attributed music , problems of authenticity in assigning meaning music. of meanings musical symbols can reflect can relate emotion, culture, , behavior, in same way linguistic symbols function.

the interdisciplinarity of symbolism in anthropology, linguistics, , musicology has generated new analytical outlooks (see analysis) different focuses: anthropologists have traditionally conceived of whole cultures systems of symbols, while musicologists have tended explore symbolism within particular repertories. structural approaches seek uncover interrelationships between symbolic human behaviors.

in 1970s, number of scholars, including musicologist charles seeger , semiotician jean-jacques nattiez, proposed using methodology commonly employed in linguistics new way ethnomusicologists study music. new approach, influenced works of linguist ferdinand de saussure, philosopher charles sanders peirce, , anthropologist claude lévi-strauss, among others, focused on finding underlying symbolic structures in cultures , music.

in similar vein, judith becker , alton l. becker theorized existence of musical grammars in studies of theory of javanese gamelan music. proposed music studied symbolic , bears many resemblances language, making semiotic study possible. classifying music humanity rather science, nattiez suggested subjecting music linguistic models , methods might prove more effective employing scientific method. proposed inclusion of linguistic methods in ethnomusicology increase field s interdependence, reducing need borrow resources , research procedures exclusively other sciences.

john blacking ethnomusicologist sought create ethnomusicological parallel linguistic models of analysis. in work on venda music, writes, “the problem of musical description not unlike in linguistic analysis: particular grammar should account processes existing , possible sentences in language generated.” blacking sought more sonic description. wanted create musical analytical grammar, coined cultural analysis of music, incorporate both sonic description , how cultural , social factors influence structures within music. blacking desired unified method of musical analysis “...can not applied music, can explain both form, social , emotional content, , effects of music, systems of relationships between infinite number of variables.” nattiez, blacking saw universal grammar necessary giving ethnomusicology distinct identity. felt ethnomusicology “meeting ground” anthropology of music , study of music in different cultures, , lacked distinguishing characteristic in scholarship. urged others in field become more aware , inclusive of non-musical processes occur in making of music, cultural foundation properties of music in given culture, in vein of alan merriam’s work.

some musical languages have been identified more suited linguistically-focused analysis others. indian music, example, has been linked more directly language music of other traditions. critics of musical semiotics , linguistic-based analytical systems, such steven feld, argue music bears significant similarity language in cultures , linguistic analysis may ignore cultural context.

comparison

since ethnomusicology evolved comparative musicology, ethnomusicologists research features analytical comparison. problems arising using these comparisons stem fact there different kinds of comparative studies varying degree of understanding between them. beginning in late 60s, ethnomusicologists desired draw comparisons between various musics , cultures have used alan lomax’s idea of cantometrics. cantometric measurements in ethnomusicology studies have been shown relatively reliable, such wordiness parameter, while other methods not reliable, such precision of enunciation. approach, introduced steven feld, ethnomusicologists interested in creating ethnographically detailed analysis of people’s lives; comparative study deals making pairwise comparisons competence, form, performance, environment, theory, , value/equality. bruno nettl has noted 2003 comparative study seems have fallen in , out of style, noting although can supply conclusions organization of musicological data, reflections on history or nature of music cultural artifact, or understanding universal truth humanity , relationship sound, generates great deal of criticism regarding ethnocentrism , place in field.

insider/outsider epistemology

the relevance , implications of insider , outsider distinctions within ethnomusicological writing , practice has been subject of lengthy debate decades, invoked bruno nettl, timothy rice, , others. question causes such debate lies in qualifications ethnomusicologist research culture when represent outsider, dissecting culture doesn’t belong them. historically, ethnomusicological research tainted strong bias westerners in thinking music superior musics researched. bias grew apprehension of cultures allow ethnomusicologists study them, thinking music exploited or appropriated. there benefits ethnomusicological research, i.e. promotion of international understanding, fear of “musical colonialism” represents opposition outsider ethnomusicologist in conducting or research on community of insiders.

in study of ethnomusicology: thirty-one issues , concepts, nettl discusses personal , global issues pertaining field researchers, particularly western academic background. in chapter recounts field recordings among native americans of northern plains, instance, attempts come terms problematic history of ethnographic fieldwork, , envision future trajectory practice in 21st century , beyond. considering ethnomusicology field intersects in vast array of other fields in social sciences , beyond, focuses on studying people, , appropriate encounter issue of “making unfamiliar, familiar,” phrase coined william mcdougall known in social psychology. in social psychology, “unfamiliar” encountered in 3 different ways during ethnomusicological work: 1) 2 different cultures come contact , elements of both not explicable other; 2) experts within society produce new knowledge, communicated public; , 3) active minorities communicate perspective majority.

nettl has been vocal effect of subjective understanding on research. describes, fieldworker might attempt immersing outsider culture gain full understanding. this, however, can begin blind researcher , take away ability objective in being studied. researcher begins feel expert in culture’s music when, in fact, remain outsider no matter amount of research, because different culture. background knowledge of each individual influences focus of study because of comfort level material. nettl characterizes majority of outsiders members of western society study non-western music, or members of affluent nations study music of poor, or maybe city folk visit backward villages in hinterland. points possible eurocentric origins of researching foreign , exotic music. within outsider/insider dynamic , framework unequal power relations come focus , question.

in addition critiques of outsider , insider labels, nettl creates binary equates western , nonwestern. points out feels flaws in western thinking through analyses of multiple societies, , promotes notion of collaborating, greater focus on acknowledging contribution of native experts. writes, idea of joint research insider , outsider has been mentioned way of bridging chasms. in spite of optimism, actualization of practice has been limited , degree can solve insider/outsider dilemma questionable. believes every concept studied through personal perspective, “a comparison of viewpoints may give broadest possible insight.”

the position of ethnomusicologists outsiders looking in on music culture, has been discussed using said s theory of orientalism. manifests in notion music championed field may be, in many ways, western construction based on imagined or romanticized view of other situated within colonial mindset. according nettl, there 3 beliefs of insiders , members of host culture emerge lead adverse results. 3 follows: (1) ethnomusicologists come compare non-western musics or other other traditions own... in order show outsider s own music superior, (2)ethnomusicologists want use own approaches non-western music; , (3) come assumption there such thing african or asian or american indigenous music, disregarding boundaries obvious host. nettl argues, of these concerns no longer valid, ethnomusicologists no longer practice orientalist approaches homogenize , totalize various musics. explores further intricacies within insider/outsider dichotomy deconstructing notion of insider, contemplating geographic, social, , economic factors distinguish them outsiders. notes scholars of more industrialized african , asian nations see outsiders in regards rural societies , communities. though these individuals in minority, , ethnomusicology , scholarship written western perspective, nettl disputes notion of native perpetual other , outsider westerner default.

timothy rice author discusses insider/outsider debate in detail through lens of own fieldwork in bulgaria , experience outsider trying learn bulgarian music. in experience, told through book may fill soul: experiencing bulgarian music, had difficult time learning bulgarian music because musical framework founded in western perspective. had “broaden horizons” , try instead learn music bulgarian framework in order learn play sufficiently. although did learn play music, , bulgarian people said had learned quite well, admitted “there still areas of tradition (...) elude understanding , explanation. (...) sort of culturally sensitive understanding (...) necessary close gap.”

ultimately, rice argues despite impossibility of being objective one’s work ethnomusicologists may still learn self-reflection. in book, questions whether or not 1 can objective in understanding , discussing art and, in accordance philosophies of phenomenology, argues there can no such objectivity since world constructed preexisting symbols distort “true” understanding of world born into. suggests no ethnomusicologist can ever come objective understanding of music nor can ethnomusicologist understand foreign music in same way native understand it. in other words, outsider can never become insider. however, ethnomusicologist can still come subjective understanding of music, shapes scholar’s understanding of outside world. own scholarship, rice suggests 5 principles acquisition of cognitive categories in instrumental tradition among bulgarian musicians. however, outsider, rice notes understanding passed through language , verbal cognitive categories whereas bulgarian instrumental tradition lacked verbal markers , descriptors of melodic form each new student had generalize , learn on own abstract conceptions governing melodies without verbal or visual aids. these 2 different methods learning music, outsider searching verbal descriptions versus insider learning imitating, represent essential differences between rice’s culture , bulgarian culture. these inherent musical differences blocked him reaching role of insider.

not there question of being on outside while studying culture, question of how go studying 1 s own society. nettl s approach determine how culture classifies own music. interested in categories create classify own music. in way, 1 able distinguish outsider while still having slight insider insight. kingsbury believes impossible study music outside of 1 s culture, if culture own? 1 must aware of personal bias may impose on study of own culture.

kingsbury, american pianist , ethnomusicologist, decided reverse common paradigm of westerner performing fieldwork in non-western context, , apply fieldwork techniques western subject. in 1988 published music, talent, , performance: conservatory cultural system, detailed time studying american northeastern conservatory. approached conservatory if foreign land, doing best disassociate experiences , prior knowledge of american conservatory culture study. in book, kingsbury analyzes conservatory conventions , peers may have overlooked, such way announcements disseminated, make assertions conservatory’s culture. example, concludes institutional structure of conservatory “strikingly decentralized.” in light of professors’ absences, questions conservatory’s commitment classes. analysis of conservatory contains 4 main elements: high premium on teachers’ individuality, teachers’ role nodal points reinforce patron-client-like system of social organization, subsequent organization’s enforcement of aural traditions of musical literacy, , conflict between client/patron structure , school’s “bureaucratic administrative structure.” ultimately, seems, kingsbury thinks conservatory system inherently flawed. emphasizes doesn’t intend “chide” conservatory, critiques nonetheless far complementary.

another example of western ethnomusicologists studying native environments comes craft’s music: explorations of music in daily life. book contains interviews dozens of (mostly) americans of ages, genders, ethnicities, , backgrounds, answered questions role of music in lives. each interviewee had own unique, necessary, , personal internal organization of own music. cared genre, others organized music important artist. considered music important them, did not care music @ all.

ethnomusicology , western music

early in history of field of ethnomusicology, there debate whether ethnomusicological work done on music of western society, or whether focus exclusively toward non-western music. scholars, such mantle hood, argued ethnomusicology had 2 potential focuses: study of non-european art music, , study of music found in given geographical area.

however, 1960s ethnomusicologists proposing ethnomusicological methods should used examine western music. instance, alan merriam, in 1960 article, defines ethnomusicology not study of non-european music, study of music in culture. in doing discards of external focus proposed earlier (and contemporary) ethnomusicologists, regarded non-european music more relevant attention of scholars. moreover, expands definition being centered on music including study of culture well.

modern ethnomusicologists, part, consider field apply western music non-western. however, ethnomusicology, in earlier years of field, still focused on non-western cultures; in recent years ethnomusicological scholarship has begun allow more diversity respect both cultures being studied , methods these cultures may studied.

despite increased acceptance of ethnomusicological examinations of western music, modern ethnomusicologists still focus overwhelmingly on non-western music. 1 of few major examinations of western music ethnomusicological focus, 1 of earliest, henry kingsbury s book music, talent, , performance. in book, kingsbury studies conservatory in north-eastern united states. examination of conservatory uses many of traditional fieldwork methods of ethnomusicology.

ethics

fieldwork in ethnomusicology requires researchers form interpersonal relationships informants. because of this, researchers must aware of own ethical responsibilities informant. these concerns can include questions of privacy, consent, , safety. because such universal issue ethnomusicologists, society ethnomusicology (sem) has committee on ethics publishes position statement on ethics.

ethical issues in field of ethnomusicology parallel found in anthropology. american anthropology association has made statements on ethics of anthropological research, of concerns ethnomusicological study well.

mark slobin, twentieth century ethnomusicologist, observes discussion on ethics has been founded on several assumptions, namely that: 1) “ethics largely issue ‘western’ scholars working in ‘non-western’ societies”; 2) “most ethical concerns arise interpersonal relations between scholar , ‘informant’ consequence of fieldwork”; 3) “ethics situated within…the declared purpose of researcher: increase of knowledge in ultimate service of human welfare.” reference ralph beals; , 4) “discussion of ethical issues proceeds values of western culture.” slobin remarks more accurate statement might acknowledge ethics vary across nations , cultures, , ethics cultures of both researcher , informant in play in fieldwork settings.

some case scenarios ethically ambiguous situations slobin discusses include following:

slobin’s discussion of ethical issues in ethnomusicology surprising in highlights ethnomusicology community’s apathy towards public discussion of ethical issues, evidenced lackluster response of scholars @ large 1970 sem meeting.

slobin points out interesting facet of ethical thinking among ethnomusicologists in many of ethical rules deal westerners studying in non-western, third world countries. non-western ethnomusicologists excluded these rules, westerner’s studying western music.

he highlights several prevalent issues in ethnomusicology using hypothetical cases american anthropological association newsletter , framing them in terms of ethnomusicology. example: “you bring local musician, 1 of informants, west on tour. wants perform pieces feel inappropriately represent tradition westerns, genre reinforces western stereotypes musician’s homeland… have right overrule insider when on territory?”

ethnomusicologists tend towards discussion of ethics in sociological contexts. timothy taylor writes on byproducts of cultural appropriation through music, arguing 20th century commodification of non-western musics serves marginalize groups of musicians not traditionally integrated western music production , distribution industries. steven feld argues ethnomusicologists have place in analyzing ethics of popular music collaboration, such paul simon s work traditional zydeco, chicano, , south african beats on graceland. feld notes inherently imbalanced power dynamics within musical collaboration can contribute cultural exploitation.

martin rudoy scherzinger, twentieth century ethnomusicologist, contests claim copyright law inherently conducive exploitation of non-westerners western musicologists variety of reasons of quotes other esteemed ethnomusicologists: non-western pieces uncopyrightable because orally passed down, “sacred songs issued forth ancient spirits or gods” giving them no other obtain copyright, , concept of copyright may relevant in “commercially oriented societies”. furthermore, notion of originality (in west especially) quagmire in , of itself. scherzinger brought several issues forefront arise metaphysical interpretations of authorial autonomy because of idea western aesthetical interpretation not different non-western interpretation. is, music “for of mankind” yet law treats differently.

gender

gender concerns have more risen prominence in methodology of ethnomusicology. modern researchers criticize historical works of ethnomusicology showing gender-biased research , androcentric theoretical models not reflect reality. there many reasons issue. historically, ethnomusicological fieldwork focused on musical contributions of men, in line underlying assumption male-dominated musical practices reflective of musical systems of society whole. other gender-biased research may have been attributed difficulty in acquiring information on female performers without infringing upon cultural norms may not have accepted or allowed women perform in public (reflective of social dynamics in societies men dominate public life , women confined private sphere. ). finally, men have traditionally dominated fieldwork , institutional leadership positions , tended prioritize experiences of men in cultures studied. lack of accessible female informants , alternative forms of collecting , analyzing musical data, ethnomusicological researchers such ellen koskoff believe may not able understand musical culture of society. ellen koskoff quotes rayna reiter, saying bridging gap explain “seeming contradiction , internal workings of system have half pieces.”

despite historical trend of overlooking gender, modern ethnomusicologists believe studying gender can provide useful lens understand musical practices of society. considering divisions of gender roles in society, ethnomusicologist ellen koskoff writes: “many societies divide musical activity 2 spheres consistent other symbolic dualisms”, including such culture-specific, gender based dualisms private/public, feelings/actions, , sordid (provocative)/holy. in cultures, music comes reflect divisions in such way women’s music , instrumentation viewed “non-music” opposed men’s “music”. these , other dualities of musical behavior can demonstrate societal views of gender, whether musical behavior support or subvert gender roles.

women contributed extensively ethnomusicological fieldwork 1950s onward, women’s , gender studies in ethnomusicology took off in 1970s. ellen koskoff articulates 3 stages in women’s studies within ethnomusicology: first, corrective approach filled in basic gaps in our knowledge of women’s contributions music , culture; second, discussion of relationships between women , men expressed through music; third, integrating study of sexuality, performance studies, semiotics, , other diverse forms of meaning-making. since 1990s, ethnomusicologists have begun consider role of fieldworker’s identity, including gender , sexuality, in how interpret music of other cultures. example, susan mcclary’s watershed book feminine endings (1991) shows “relationships between musical structure , socio-cultural values” , has influenced ethnomusicologists, although not ethnomusicological book. there general understanding western conceptions of gender, sexuality, , other social constructions not apply other cultures , predominantly western lens can cause various methodological issues researchers.

the concept of gender in ethnomusicology tied idea of reflexive ethnography, in researchers critically consider own identities in relation societies , people studying. example, katherine hagedorn uses technique in divine utterances: performance of afro-cuban santeria. throughout description of fieldwork in cuba, hagedorn remarks how positionality, through whiteness, femaleness, , foreignness, afforded luxuries out of reach of cuban counterparts. positionality put in “outsider” perspective on cuban culture , affected ability access culture researcher on santeria. whiteness , foreignness, writes, allowed circumvent intimate inter-gender relations centered around performance using bata drum. unlike cuban female counterparts faced stigma, able learn play bata , formulate research.

mass media

in first chapter of book popular music of non-western world, peter manual examines effect technology has had on non-western music discussing ability disseminate, change, , influence music around world. begins discussion definitions of genres, highlighting difficulties in distinguishing between folk, classical, , popular music, within 1 society. tracing historical development of phonograph, radio, cassette recordings, , television, manuel shows that, following practice set in western world, music has become commodity in many societies, no longer has same capacity unite community, offer kind of “mass catharsis” 1 scholar put it. stresses modern theoretical lens view music must account advent of technology.

copyright

copyright poses issue ethnomusicologists in particular because of differing degrees of protection country country. rights surrounding music ownership left ethics.

anthony seeger explains “not rights , obligations [with regards music] laws.” cites personal experience working suyá people of brazil, whom released recording of songs. practices , beliefs regarding inspiration, authorship, , ownership of songs, trace animals , spirits , can “owned” entire communities, not allow single original author defined united states copyright law. in cases copyright granted, seeger identifies number of concerns respect who—the informant-performer, researcher, producer, , organization funding research—earns contribution copyrighted item.

martin scherzinger offers differing opinion on copyright, , argues law not inherently ethnocentric. cites ideology behind copyright in 19th century, stating spiritual inspiration did not prohibit composers being granted authorship of works. furthermore, suggests group ownership of song not different collective influence in western classical music of several composers on individual work.

identity

the origins of music , connections identity have been debated throughout history of ethnomusicology. thomas turino defines “self,” “identity,” , “culture” patterns of habits, such tendencies respond stimuli in particular ways repeat , reinscribe themselves. musical habits , our responses them lead cultural formations of identity , identity groups. martin stokes, function of music exercise collective power, creating barriers among groups. thus, identity categories such ethnicity , nationality used indicate oppositional content.

just music reinforces categories of self-identification, identity can shape musical innovation. george lipsitz’s 1986 case study of mexican-american music in los angeles 1950s 1980s posits chicano musicians motivated integrate multiple styles , genres in music represent multifaceted cultural identity. incorporating mexican folk music , modern-day barrio influences, mexican rock-and-roll musicians in la made commercially successful postmodern records included content community, history, , identity. lipsitz suggests mexican community in los angeles reoriented traditions fit postmodern present. seeking “unity of disunity”, minority groups can attempt find solidarity presenting sharing experience other oppressed groups. according lipsitz, disunity creates disunity furthermore engenders historical bloc, made of numerous, multifaceted, marginalized cultures.

lipsitz noted bifocal nature of rock group los lobos particularly exemplary of paradox. straddled line mixing traditional mexican folk elements white rockabilly , african american rhythm , blues, while simultaneously conforming none of aforementioned genres. commercially successful unsurprising lipsitz- goal in incorporating many cultural elements equally play everyone. in manner, in lipsitz s view, music served break down barriers in front presentation of “multiple realities”.

lipsitz describes weakening effect dominant (los angeles) culture imposes on marginalized identities. suggests mass media dilutes minority culture representing dominant culture natural , normal. lipsitz proposes capitalism turns historical traditions of minority groups superficial icons , images in order profit on perception “exotic” or different. therefore, commodification of these icons , images results in loss of original meaning.

minorities, according lipsitz, cannot assimilate nor can separate dominant groups. cultural marginality , misrepresentation in media makes them aware of society’s skewed perception of them. antonio gramsci suggests there “experts in legitimization”, attempt legitimize dominant culture making consented people live under it. proposes oppressed groups have own “organic intellectuals” provide counter-oppressive imagery resist legitimization. example, low riders used irony poke fun @ popular culture’s perception of desirable vehicles, , bands los illegals provided listening communities useful vocabulary talk oppression , injustice.

michael m.j. fisher breaks down following main components of postmodern sensibility: “bifocality or reciprocity of perspectives, juxtaposition of multiple realities-intertextuality, inter-referentiality, , comparisons through families of resemblance.” reciprocity of perspectives makes music accessible inside , outside of specific community. chicano musicians exemplified , juxtaposed multiple realities combining different genres, styles, , languages in music. can widen music’s reception allowing mesh within cultural setting, while incorporating mexican history , tradition. inter-referentiality, or referencing relatable experiences, can further widen music’s demographic , shape creators’ cultural identities. in doing so, chicano artists able connect music “community subcultures , institutions oriented around speech, dress, car customizing, art, theater, , politics.” finally, drawing comparisons through families of resemblance can highlight similarities between cultural styles. chicano musicians able incorporate elements of r&b, soul, , rock n’ roll in music.

music not used create group identities, develop personal identity well. frith describes music’s ability manipulate moods , organize daily life. susan crafts studied role of music in individual life interviewing wide variety of people, young adult integrated music in every aspect of life veteran used music way escape memories of war , share joy others. many scholars have commented on associations individuals develop of “my music” versus “your music”: one’s personal taste contributes sense of unique self-identity reinforced through practices of listening , performing music.

as part of broader inclusion of identity politics (see gender), ethnomusicologists have become increasingly interested in how identity shapes ethnomusicological work. fieldworkers have begun consider positions within race, economic class, gender, , other identity categories , how relate or differ cultural norms in areas study. katherine hagedorn’s 2001 book divine utterances: performance of afro-cuban santería example of experiential ethnomusicology, “...incorporates author’s voice, interpretations, , reactions ethnography, musical , cultural analysis, , historical context.” book received society ethnomusicology’s prestigious alan p. merriam prize in 2002, marking broad acceptance of new method in institutions of ethnomusicology.

nationalism

music forms large part of national sentiment, or patriotism, , subject reformist influences of globalization , cosmopolitanism. thomas turino examined musical nationalism , implications within , across national boundaries, defining musical nationalism incorporation of local ‘folk’ elements elite or cosmopolitan musical styles. national style may include songs , genres used reification of traditional culture, or more explicitly political purposes. world beat can considered contrary nationalism, designed appeal more global audience mixing styles of disparate cultures. may compromise cultural authenticity while commodifying cultural tradition.(see globalization)

globalization

through technological advances of late twentieth century, recordings of music around world began enter euro-american music industry. timothy taylor discusses arrival , development of new terminology in face of globalization. term “world music” developed , popularized way categorize , sell “non-western” music. term “world music” began in 1990s marketing term classify , sell records other parts of world under unified label, , world music introduced category in grammys shortly thereafter. term “world beat” employed in 90s refer pop music, has fallen out of use. issue these terms present perpetuate “us” vs. “them” dichotomy, “othering” , combining musical categories outside of western tradition sake of marketing.

turino proposes use of term cosmopolitanism rather globalization refer contact between world musical cultures, since term suggests more equitable sharing of music traditions , acknowledges multiple cultures can productively share influence , ownership of particular musical styles.

the issue of appropriation has come forefront in discussions of music’s globalization, since many western european , north american artists have participated in “revitalization through appropriation,” claiming sounds , techniques other cultures own , adding them work without crediting origins of music. steven feld explores issue further, putting in context of colonialism: admiration alone of culture’s music not constitute appropriation, in combination power , domination (economic or otherwise), insufficient value placed on music’s origin , appropriation has taken place. if originators of piece of music given due credit , recognition, problem can avoided.

feld criticizes claim ownership of appropriated music through examination of paul simon s collaboration south african musicians during recording of graceland album. simon paid south african musicians work, given of legal rights music. although characterized seems fair compensation , mutual respect, feld suggests simon shouldn’t able claim complete ownership of music. feld holds music industry accountable phenomenon, because system gives legal , artistic credit major contract artists, hire musicians “wage laborers” due how little paid or credit given. system rewards creativity of bringing musical components of song together, rather rewarding actual creators of music. globalization continues, system allows capitalist cultures absorb , appropriate other musical cultures while receiving full credit musical arrangement.

feld discusses subjective nature of appropriation, , how society’s evaluation of each case determines severity of offense. when american singer james brown borrowed african rhythms, , when african musician fela kuti borrowed elements of style james brown, common roots of culture made connection more acceptable society. however, when talking heads borrow style james brown, distancing between artist , appropriated music more overt public eye, , instance becomes more controversial ethical standpoint. thus, issue of cycling afro-americanization , africanization in afro-american/african musical material , ideas embedded in power , control because of nature of record companies , cultivation of international pop music elite power sell enormous numbers of recordings.

dr. gibb schreffler examines globalization , diaspora through lens of punjabi pop music. schreffler’s writing on bhangra music commentary on dissemination of music , physical movement. suggests, function , reception of punjabi music changed drastically increasing migration , globalization catalyzed need cohesive punjabi identity, emerging stopgap during period marked combination of large-scale experiences of separation homeland yet poor communication channels. in 1930s, before liberation british colonial rule, music carried explicit punjabi label had function of regional entertainment. in contrast, punjabi music of 1940s , 50s coincided wave of punjabi nationalism replaced regionalist ideals of earlier times. music began form particular genteel identity in 1960s accessible punjabi expatriates.

during 1970s , 80s, punjabi pop music began adhere aesthetically more cosmopolitan tastes, overshadowing music reflected authentic punjabi identity. after, geographic , cultural locality of punjabi pop became prevalent theme, reflecting strong relationship globalization of widespread preferences. schreffler explains shift in role of punjabi pop in terms of different worlds of performance: amateur, professional, sacred, art, , mediated. these worlds defined act , function of musical act, , each type of marked activity influences how musical act perceived , social norms , restrictions subject. punjabi popular music falls mediated world due globalization , dissemination of commercial music separating performance immediate context. thus, punjabi popular music evolved neatly represent dualities considered characterize punjabi identity: east/west, guardians of tradition/embracers of new technology, local/diaspora.

cognition

cognitive psychology, neuroscience, anatomy, , similar fields have endeavored understand how music relates individual’s perception, cognition, , behavior. research topics include pitch perception, representation , expectation, timbre perception, rhythmic processing, event hierarchies , reductions, musical performance , ability, musical universals, musical origins, music development, cross-cultural cognition, evolution, , more.

from cognitive perspective, brain perceives auditory stimuli music according gestalt principles, or “principles of grouping.” gestalt principles include proximity, similarity, closure, , continuation. each of gestalt principles illustrates different element of auditory stimuli cause them perceived group, or 1 unit of music. proximity dictates auditory stimuli near each other seen group. similarity dictates when multiple auditory stimuli present, similar stimuli perceived group. closure tendency perceive incomplete auditory pattern whole—the brain “fills in” gap. , continuation dictates auditory stimuli more perceived group when follow continuous, detectable pattern.

the perception of music has growing body of literature. structurally, auditory system able distinguish different pitches (sound waves of varying frequency) via complementary vibrating of eardrum. can parse incoming sound signals via pattern recognition mechanisms. cognitively, brain constructionist when comes pitch. if 1 removes fundamental pitch harmonic spectrum, brain can still “hear” missing fundamental , identify through attempt reconstruct coherent harmonic spectrum.

research suggests more learned perception, however. contrary popular belief, absolute pitch learned @ critical age, or familiar timbre only. debate still occurs on whether western chords naturally consonant or dissonant, or whether ascription learned. relation of pitch frequency universal phenomenon, scale construction culturally specific. training in cultural scale results in melodic , harmonic expectations.

cornelia fales has explored ways expectations of timbre learned based on past correlations. has offered 3 main characteristics of timbre: timbre constitutes link external world, functions perceptualization s primary instrument , musical element experience without informational consciousness. fales has gone in-depth exploration of humankind s perceptual relation timbre, noting out of of musical elements, our perception of timbre divergent physical acoustic signal of sound itself. growing concept, discusses paradox of timbre , idea perceived timbre exists in mind of listener , not in objective world. in fales exploration of timbre, discusses 3 broad categories of timbre manipulation in musical performance throughout world. first of these, timbral anomaly extraction, involves breaking of acoustic elements perceptual fusion of timbre of part, leading splintering of perceived acoustic signal (demonstrated in overtone singing , didjeridoo music). second, timbral anomaly redistribution, redistribution of gestalt components new groups, creating chimeric sound composed of precepts made of components several sources (as seen in ghanaian balafon music or bell tone in barbershop singing). finally, timbral juxtaposition consists of juxtaposing sounds fall on opposing ends of continuum of timbral structure extends harmonically-based formant-structured timbres (as demonstrated again in overtone singing or use of minde ornament in indian sitar music). overall, these 3 techniques form scale of progressively more effective control of perceptualization reliance on acoustic world increases. in fales examinations of these types of timbre manipulation within inanga , kubandwa songs, synthesizes scientific research on subjective/objective dichotomy of timbre culture-specific phenomena, such interactions between music (the known world) , spiritual communication (the unknown world).

cognitive research has been applied ethnomusicological studies of rhythm. ethnomusicologists believe african , western rhythms organized differently. western rhythms may based on ratio relationships, while african rhythms may organized additively. in view, means western rhythms hierarchical in nature, while african rhythms serial. 1 study provides empirical support view published magill , pressing in 1997. researchers recruited highly experienced drummer produced prototypical rhythmic patterns. magill , pressing used wing & kristofferson’s (1973) mathematical modeling test different hypotheses on timing of drummer. 1 version of model used metrical structure; however, authors found structure not necessary. drumming patterns interpreted within additive structure, supporting idea of universal ametrical organization scheme rhythm.

researchers have attempted use psychological , biological principles understand more complex musical phenomena such performance behavior or evolution of music, have reached few consensuses in these areas. accepted errors in performance give insight perception of music’s structure, these studies restricted western score-reading tradition far. there several theories explain evolution of music. 1 of theories, expanded on ian cross, idea music piggy-backed on ability produce language , evolved enable , promote social interaction. cross bases account on fact music humanly ancient art seen throughout every example of human culture. since opinions vary on precisely can defined music , cross defines complexly structured, affectively significant, attentionally entraining, , immediately—yet indeterminately—meaningful, noting known cultures have art form can defined in way. in same article, cross examines communicative power of music, exploring role in minimizing within-group conflict , bringing social groups , claiming music have served function of managing intra , inter-group interactions throughout course of human evolution. essentially, cross proposes music , language evolved together, serving contrasting functions have been equally essential evolution of humankind. additionally, bruno nettl has proposed music evolved increase efficiency of vocal communication on long distances, or enabled communication supernatural.