Religious significance Monkeys in Chinese culture

1 religious significance

1.1 folk religion
1.2 daoism
1.3 buddhism

religious significance

gibbon reaching moon s reflection, ohara koson, 1926.

chinese religions use monkeys , apes metaphors people. in chinese folk religion, shape-shifting monkeys said human ancestors. in daoism, monkeys, particularly gibbons, believed have longevity xian transcendent; immortal . in chinese buddhism, on 1 hand, monkeys symbolized restless , foolish humans, , on other hand, gautama buddha supposedly benevolent monkey king in earlier incarnation.

folk religion

chinese traditional folk religion regards monkeys supernatural beings. eberhard (1968:50) cites reports monkeys talk , knew past , , men .

jan jakob maria de groot s classic study of chinese religions (1908:202) distinguishes monkey demons , were-monkeys , both of shape shift between monkey , human. while monkey demon acts dangerous devil (frequently transforming in order have sex human), were-monkey virtuous (e.g., monkey takes human shape in order become buddhist monk, xuanshizhi 宣室志).

monkey demons assume both male , female forms. de groot (1908:603) describes them either lewd fornicator of wives , maids or seductress, in beautiful female forms, of adults , inexperienced youths, senses bewitches @ detriment of health . instance, (4th century) in search of supernatural records monkey-demon story era of emperor xiaowu of jin.

in [taiyuan] period (376-396) of [jin] dynasty kept monkey in palace of [dizhao 昭翟], prince of [dingling], in front of chambers of concubines. these women once upon time simultaneously got in family way, , each of them gave birth 3 children danced , hopped while discharging bowels. [zhao] being convinced monkey culprit, killed beast , children; made women burst out @ once wailing. interrogated them, , avowed had seen young man dressed yellow silk robe , white gauze cap, lovely personage, jesting , chatting quite man (tr. de groot 1908:603-4)

legends monkey-human interbreeding common, noted above jue ape-men copulate women , zhou monkey-women copulate men.

the youyang zazu (tr. eberhard 1968:51) tells legend chinese peoples descendants of simians: monkey married female servant of daughter of heaven , became ancestor of [ji]; monkey married servant of daughter of heaven , became founder of [cheng] – using ji 姬 (lit. imperial concubine ) general term southern peoples , cheng 傖 (or cang 傖 coarse; vulgar ) insulting word north chinese had migrated south .

the baopuzi lists ways protect oneself mountain demons associated different astronomical days (chap. 17, tr. ware 1967:288), including on day shen [申 monkey ], man calling himself lord monkey [猴]; [day jiuqing 九卿], ape [猿].

were-monkeys (named in analogy werewolf) older monkeys transformed humans. (c. 1st century) wu yue chunqiu (de groot 1908:201) tells story king goujian of yue (r. 496-465 bce) wanting improve army s military skill. 1 of ministers suggested:

i have heard virgin girl in [yue] has come southern forest. people of country praise (martial skill). request summon her, , grant interview @ once. king of [yue] sent envoys summon questioned art of fighting sword , halberd. when virgin set out north audience king; met on way old man. said name mr. [yuan] , addressed have heard skilled in swordsmanship, wish show me! girl replied handmaid not dare conceal you. test me! thereupon mr. [yuan] swept walking staff on cluster of bamboo trees, , (in 1 sweep) laid twigs , branches bare. before falling leaves had reached ground, however, girl had caught them (on sword), mr. [yuan] flew tree, , changed white gibbon. (tr. van gulik 1967:40)

mr. yuan named yuan gong 袁公, wordplay upon yuan 猿 gibbon; monkey . noting monkey-man called himself member of yuan 袁 ( monkey ) clan, de groot says, in subsequent ages continues feature of monkey-myth represent were-monkeys persons bearing tribal name, man-foxes … believed members of hu tribe. —referring pun between hu 狐 fox , hu 胡 ( barbarian ) clan (see de groot 1908:195).

baiyuan white gibbon painting jesuit lay brother giuseppe castiglione, 18th century

baiyuan 白猨 white gibbons mr. yuan considered spiritually powerful. (c. 239 bce) lüshi chunqiu has knack story legendary archer yang youji 養由基 , shen baiyuan supernatural white gibbon instinctively knew intentions of humans.

yang youji , yin ru both men of highly refined skills. in courtyard of palace of chu there magical white ape, best archers not hit, , king of chu asked yang youji try. yang youji picked bow , arrows , went try. before shooting, had pinned arrows; single shot, ape fell. thus, yang youji had ability hit target before hitting target. (chap. 24, tr. knoblock , riegel 2000:619)

the (121 bce) huainanzi tells simpler version of story.

the king of chu had white ape. when king himself shot @ it, ape grabbed arrows show off. ordered yang youji shoot it. when [yang] began draw bow , aim arrow, [even] before shot, ape hugged tree , shrieked. hitting target before hitting target. (16, tr. major 2010:648)

daoism

daoism, buddhism, paradoxically treats monkeys both foolish , wise animals.

the (c. 4th-3rd centuries bce) daoist zhuangzi illustrates gibbon/macaque distinction (see symbolism section). first story jugong 狙公 macaque/monkey trainer .

to weary spiritual intelligence trying unify things without knowing identical called 3 in morning. why called 3 in morning ? once upon time, there monkey keeper feeding little chestnuts charges. ll give 3 in morning , 4 in evening, told them. monkeys angry. right, then, said keeper, ll give 4 in morning , 3 in evening. monkeys happy arrangement. without adversely affecting either name or reality of amount fed them, keeper acted in accordance feelings of monkeys. recognized mutual dependence of , that. consequently, sage harmonizes right , wrong of things , rests @ center of celestial potter s wheel. called dual procession. (chap. 2, tr. mair 1994:16-17)

zhuangzi tells yuan 猿 gibbon parable king of wei.

master chuang passed king of wei wearing patched clothing made of coarse cloth , shoes tied twine. how come re wretched, master? asked king of wei. s poverty, said master chuang, not wretchedness. when scholar possesses way , integrity cannot put them practice, wretched. when clothing tattered , shoes have holes in them, poor, not wretched. called, not having met right time : has majesty not seen high-climbing gibbon? when on nanmu, catalpa, or camphor tree [all tall, straight trees], gibbon grasps branches hands , feet or wraps around them tail, moving nimbly among them. yi , p engmeng [the famous mythical archers houyi , disciple] not able take accurate aim @ it. when, however, gibbon on silkworm thorn, ramosissimus, thorny limebush, or matrimony vine [all short, thorny bushes], moves furtively , glances sideways, shaking , trembling while. not because gibbon s sinews , bones have become stiff , lost suppleness, because finds in inconvenient situation , cannot show off ability. now, if situated under benighted ruler , confused ministers, , still wish not wretched, how so? (20, tr. mair 1994:194)

the daoist discipline of daoyin guide , pull based on notion circulating , absorbing qi breath; life force in body can lead longevity or immortality. long-limbed animals believed innately adept @ absorbing qi , acquire occult powers, including ability assume human shape, , prolong life several hundred years (van gulik1967:38). example, (c. 4th century) chunqiu fanlu (tr. van gulik) says, gibbon resembles macaque, larger, , colour black. forearms being long, lives 8 hundred years, because expert in controlling breathing.

the baopuzi lists animals associated longevity, including (chap. 3, tr. luo 2003:4124, cf. ware 1967:56), macaque may evolve ape after 800 years. after 500 years evolves jue, , jue evolve chanchu (toad) after 1,000 years.

guanyin, gibbon, , crane scrolls, muqi fachang, 13th century

another animal associated longevity 鶴 crane , long neck , legs supposedly enabled bird absorb qi , live thousand years. pair of yuanhe 猿鶴 gibbon , crane , both of famous graceful movements, became literary , artistic trope long life . (624) yiwen leiju encyclopedia quotes baopuzi story, not found in received text, king mu of zhou (r. 976-922 bce). when king mu of [zhou] dynasty made expedition south, entire (routed) army transformed. gentlemen [君子] among troops changed gibbons or cranes, small men [小人] insects or grains of sand. (tr. van gulik 1967:39), noting quoted passage sets gibbon gentleman among primates – position has kept till present day.

buddhism

a monkey offering honey feed buddha.

when buddhism first transmitted china circa 2nd century ce, monkeys ancient tradition in buddhist texts.

sutras quote buddha use monkey similes. dhammapada (334, tr. buddharakkhita 1990:102) says: craving of person given heedless living grows creeper. monkey seeking fruits in forest, leaps life life (tasting fruits of kamma). samyutta nikaya (12.61, tr. bodhi 2000:595) says: monkey roaming through forest grabs hold of 1 branch, lets go , grabs another, lets go , grabs still another, called mind , mentality , consciousness arises 1 thing , ceases day , night.

several of jataka tales describe buddha s past lives monkey or ape (see 4 harmonious animals). example, mahakapi jataka or great monkey king.

in heart of himavat there large tree, bore excellent fruits bigger palmyra nuts having exceedingly sweet flavor; lovely hue , fragrance, no man had ever seen or noticed before. tree abode of several monkeys; , bodhisatta born king of monkeys. larger in size followers; , more compassionate , virtuous others. 1 day, monkey king noticed branch of tree had grown on stream. alarmed him, because of fruits might drop in stream, might carried away man’s world; , men come have fruits themselves. so, instructed monkeys not let fruit grow on branch if wished enjoy fruits longer period. … [however, 1 piece of fruit fell , floated downstream, came hands of king who] tasted it, , remarked, nothing surpass flavor of fruit . ordered men hunt tree in , around river-bank bore fruit. king’s men found out tree laden such luscious , delicious fruits. when saw monkeys enjoying fruits, king wanted have eagerly, attacked monkeys mercilessly volleys of arrows. witnessing approaching attacking royal soldiers bodhisatta jumped on mountain peak, other monkeys not copy. there, in order save friends seized strong rooted tall cane legs , bending towards tree jumped , caught hold of branch of tree. called upon other monkeys use him bridge jump upon mountain peak. taking advantage of situation monkeys jumped on mountain , darted away quickly. monkey king was, however, terribly bruised , injured being trampled mates when acting bridge them. swooned. king watched flight of monkeys; , plight of monkey king. moved exemplification of such insight; courage; valor; , sacrifice, animal had displayed save lives of subjects. king ordered men delicately bring down unconscious ape , gently place him on couch , render best possible first aid. when great monkey regained consciousness king asked him explain why did endangered life save subjects, rather meant serve or sacrifice. guru, said, o king! verily body broken mind still sound; uplifted on whom exercised royal powers long. , before king utter words of praise great monkey; found him dead. (tr. varma 1999)

chinese buddhists adapted , expanded upon these traditional monkey metaphors human qualities. famous chan buddhist example chinese xinyuan mind monkey , buddhist psychological metaphor describing unsettled; restless; inconstant mentality. word xinyuan 心猿 heart-/mind-monkey combined yima 意馬 thought-/will-horse in 4 character idiom xinyuan yima or yima xinyuan, reflecting mentioned association between monkeys , horses (and major motif in journey west).